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EEL 4309 Lab Manual - (ECE) at UCF

1. C1 EM Vec NAAN ah TL084 Vout Vin c2 TU dh Hcc Ar Rb IL NZ Figure 9 The circuit diagram for a second order lowpass filter If both R1 and R2 are is set equal to R and C1 and C2 are set equal to C then the cutoff frequency wo reduces to 1 00 gc 20 the quality factory becomes T 3 K 21 Q gt or K 3 l 22 ASHO and the gain remaining the same as Equation 18 Rb K Rat 1 23 A closer look at Equation 21 with R1 R2 R and Cl C2 C shows that the quality factor and the gain K are no longer independent and a directly coupled by Equations 21 or 22 In designing this second order filter highest priority is that the desired Q must first be met If the gain K does not meet the desired gain as set forth by the design requirement it is much easier to add an additional 640 amplifier stage to increase the overall gain or to add a voltage divider to reduce the overall gain to the desired level Figure 10 shows the circuit diagram for the second order lowpass filter with R1 R2 R and C1 C2 C Vout Figure 10 The circuit diagram for a second order lowpass with R1 R2 R and Cl C2 C filter The frequency response of this filter can be found by substituting s jo into Equation 16 giving Vout K 02 ee a 24 Vin o o 2 9 QJ WO 0 The magnitude response is found from Equation 24 as K 002 H o f Vout o
2. 740 Figure 13 gives Vout versus Vin for the Schmitt trigger circuit given in Figure 12 RI Vcc RI4R2 Vout Vcc Figure 13 Vout versus Vin for the Schmitt Trigger circuit of Figure 12 As illustrated in laboratory experiment 4 a comparator can be used as a pulse width modulator as shown in Figure 14 Defining Vout as Vcc for Vin gt Vx 0 for Vin lt Vx 34 Vout Vin M Vout V Vx pc Sawtooth Waveform Tl Figure 14 A block diagram of a pulse width modulator But the sawtooth waveform over one period T can written as t Vx Ka forO lt t lt T 35 As long as Vx Vin Vout will be equal to Vcc The point in time T1 when Vx Vin Vout goes to zero as shown in Figure 15 Solving Equation 35 for t and setting Vx Vin give the time T1 as 741 z Hep for eVineK 36 Vb I T Time Figure 15 An example Vout from the pulse width modulator given in Figure 12 Procedure General Setup l 2 Record the model and serial number of the scope power supply multimeter and function generator used in laboratory experiment Download the datasheet for the LM393 comparator This will be needed to obtain the pin out of the comparator When comparing datasheet data values to experimental data use the typical values in the datasheet if given When measuring any values make sure to measure all inputs as well as the output of the circuit Do not rely on the
3. The current through R1 and R2 is given as the voltage across R1 and R2 divided by the total resistance R1 and R2 VRI Vout RI R2 20 The voltage across R2 is then found as VRI Vout V R2 I R2 R R 31 V1 is sum of V R2 Vout or VRI Vout V1 Vout R2 RI R2 32 Rearranging Equation 32 and combining terms gives R2 VRI RI Vout Vie eee 33 R1 R2 For the diode D1 to be off V1 gt 0 as stated earlier Substituting this fact into Equation 33 R2 VRI R1 Vout Oe RIFR CO and solving for Vout yields VRI R2 Vout gt Ri 35 Using a similar approach in solving for V2 and with the requirement that V2 0 for D2 to be off gives VR2 R3 Vout RA 36 As long as 5 16 VRI RI VR2 R3 R2 lt Vout R4 37 both diodes will be off and the circuit of Figure 18 b applies Figure 18 b is a circuit for an inverting amplifier with RF Vout 57 Ra Vin 38 Figure 17 shows the transfer function of Vout versus Vin The center curve is represented by Equation 38 Vout RE SONRYSRGIRIy s Slope amp RF RA E T VRIFTRZTRIJ E ee aa Slope RI RF ll R2 RA Figure 17 Vout versus Vin for the limiter circuit given in Figure 18 For the case then V2 gt 0 then VR2 R3 Vout gt R RA 39 and the diode D2 is on and diode D1 is off With Diode D2 on the resistor R3 is placed parallel with RF Vout for
4. Using the same Av 10 inverting amplifier apply a 0 05 volt peak sine wave For various frequencies between 1000 Hz and 1 MHz obtain Vout and Vin and compute Av Vout Vin Select frequencies with the value of 1X 2X and 5X factors for each decade of frequency Plot in dB Av 20 log l Av versus frequency Determine the frequency where the gain is down by 3dB Repeat steps 15 17 for a 2 volt peak to peak input Apply a 2 volt peak to peak square wave and measure the rise time of the output to determine the slew rate of the op amp AVoltage A Time slope of the edge Use the linear rising section to determine the slew rate Zoom in on an edge with the oscilloscope to accurately measure the rise time Compare the measured slew rate from step 19 to the value given in the data sheet Compare the measured value with Equations 6 and 7 for both 0 05 volt peak sine wave input and the 1 volt peak sine wave input Non Inverting Amplifier l 2 3 4 CA 8 9 10 Repeat steps 12 21 for the inverting amplifier section for the non inverting amplifier except Av 3 and Av 11 instead of Av 10 Apply a 2 volt peak to peak 200 Hz sine wave to the input of the gain of 11 non inverting amplifier with Vcc 15 v and Vcc 15 Add a load resistor from the op amp output Vout to ground Measure the peak output voltage from the op amp for load resistors in the range of 100 ohms to 10k ohms Use a
5. Repeat Steps 4 and 5 for Q 0 5 and 5 How do these oscilloscope plots compare to Figure 12 From step 6 compare the measured overshoot to Equation 31 Build a second order highpass filter using the circuit given in Figure 13 with o 10 000 rad sec with Q 2 Applying a 2 volt peak to peak sine wave input with frequencies varying from 100 Hz to 100 kHz plot its magnitude spectrum Measure at least 3 points per decade 1X 2X and 5X What is the attenuation factor in dB Decade Measure Vout at mo and compare this result to K Q Measure and plot using an oscilloscope the step response of this filter Repeat Step 11 for Q 0 5 and 5 How do these oscilloscope plots compare to Figure 15 Butterworth Filter 13 14 15 16 17 Build a fifth order Butterworth filter using the steps described in the laboratory experiment with wo 10 000 rad sec and Kd 5 The attenuation factor should be 100 dB Decade Make sure that the R s and C s are easily swappable minimum filter resistor should be 10kQ Applying a 2 volt peak to peak sine wave input with frequencies varying from 100 Hz to 10 kHz plot its magnitude spectrum Measure at least 3 points per decade 1X 2X and 5X Measure Vout at wo Apply a 2 volt peak to peak square input with a frequency of 200 Hz Measure and plot using an oscilloscope the step response of this filter Compare the measure low frequency gain to the desired gain of
6. where rag Poe 2 a atan 4Q2 1 29 2Q 0 atan Figure 12 shows the step response for a fixed cutoff frequency oo and for various quality factors Q These factors correspond to the same quality factors used to generate the magnitude spectrums given in Figure 11 except that for these plots K is not set to one but set using Equation 22 For Q 0 5 there is ringing present The frequency of this ringing or is given by or 175 0 30 which is different from the resonance frequency wo Note that the increase in ringing and the amount of overshoot in the waveform are due to an increase value of Q For Q 0 5 there is no ringing and no overshoot Actually for Q 0 5 the second order transfer function of Equation 16 can be factored into two real poles and can be implemented using the two first order lowpass filters shown in Figure 4 The percent overshoot given in the step responses is defined as V Vfinal peak ina 100 overshoot Vfinal s 31 where Vpeak is the peak voltage in the step response and Vfinal is final value of the step response after the ringing has decayed to zero as shown in Figure 12 In summary the higher value of Q the higher the overshoot J C Daly from the Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Rhode Island gives the percent overshoot as a function of Q as EP overshoot e 100 32 4Q2 1 6 13 1 2 0 5 1 0 0 0 0 002 0 004 0 0 002 0 004 a
7. Id Vd Id 0 Vx Id 0 A e4l o Vd Vd Vd Vx Vd Vx b c Figure 2 The simplified model for the diode a Its symbol b the forward biased model and c the reversed biased model Vin t A sin t 1 where o is the frequency in rad sec and o 2zf f is the frequency in hertz This circuit is commonly called a half wave rectifier When Vin Vx the diode is off reversed bias and the diode model of Figure 2 c applies the diode current Id 0 and Vout 0 Vout R Id Under the condition Vin Vx the diode is on forward bias and the model of Figure 2 b applies and current Id flows through the diode and the resistor R Vout is then given by 5 3 Vout Vin Vx 2 Vin D A Vout Vin 1a R N A 1 0 time Figure 3 a Half wave rectifier circuit diagram and b Vin as a function of time The output is the same as the input Vin but smaller in voltage by Vx Assuming Vin peak gt gt Vx Figure 4 gives Vout as a function time Vout 1 0 time Figure 4 Vout as a function of time for the half wave rectifier circuit As shown in Figure 4 half of the sine wave waveform has been set to zero The average or DC value for Vout is now non zero The average is defined 1 T Vavg 7 f vv dt 3 0 Substituting Vin t A sin t for v t T 1 Vavg f A sin ot dt 4 0 5 4 and integrating over its period T 1 f pr
8. T T dm a B A 3 Appendix A Lg E EE TA gna Tur aaan
9. Rad Sec Rad Sec Figure 5 The magnitude and phase spectrums for a first order lowpass R C filter The response to a step input can be found by taking the inverse Laplace transform of diese 8 1 00 with the Laplace transform of a unit step u t equal to 1 s and is given as Vout t 1 eV RC u t 9 A plot of Equation 9 is given in Figure 6 6 6 0 5 0 Time Figure 6 The step response to a first order lowpass R C filter The same procedures are used to find the frequency and time response for a first order highpass filter Swapping the capacitor and resistor in Figure 4 changes the first order lowpass filter to a first order highpass filter shown in Figure 7 a Vec O TL084 Vout Vin R U1 Vec Figure 7 a A buffered first order highpass R C filter The transfer function of this filter is given as S jio Vout s Q0 Vins 5 in s S si O 10 where o RC and is known as the cutoff frequency of the filter Letting s jo and substituting it into Equation 10 gives jo Vout _ 0 HG Vino i 11 Oo 6 7 The magnitude and phase are then given by o Voo oo IHG E Vinay T 12 m 1 and a arg Hgo arg re 90 arctan 13 At the frequency o the magnitude is equal to 1 A2 and the phase is equal to 45 The magnitude in decibels dB is found by Equation 7 At the cutoff fre
10. Remember to phase lock track phase the two channels prior to setting the phase angle otherwise the two channels phases won t be aligned Check with the o scope 241 26 Measure and record Vout with the Oscilloscope 27 Discuss in the laboratory report the results of steps 25 and 26 v2 ee z Vout V1 R3 t 4 R4 4 Difference Amplifier Figure 8 The schematic diagram to test a one op amp difference amplifier Instrumentation Amplifier 1 Using the parts kit in the lab build the instrumentation amplifier of Figure 5 with a gain of Ad 2 using 1k ohm resistors for R21 R3 and R7 2 Measure with the multimeter the actual resistance values 212 DIXON ECD 11 12 13 14 15 16 Compute Acm and Ad using Equations 22 and 23 Also calculate the CMMR using Equation 15 Setting V1 V2 20 volt peak to peak 200 Hz sine wave measure Vout Calculate from step 5 Acm Vout V1 Setting V1 1 volt peak to peak 200 Hz sine wave and V2 V1 To generate V2 V1 build an inverting amplifier with a gain equal to 1 Apply the function generator to V1 input to the difference amplifier and to the inverting amplifier The output of the inverter is now equal to V1 and can be applied to V2 input to the difference amplifier Measure Vout from step 7 Calculate Ad from step 8 Ad Vout 2 V1 Using Equation 24 calculate the CMRR
11. The pin out for the LM555 timer IC 9 2 The set reset flip flop RS FF is placed in a set or reset condition depending on the R and S inputs Table 1 gives the output Q of the RS FF as a function of R and S When R 0 S 0 the RS FF is in a hold state and Q does not change When R 1 and S 0 the RS FF is in a reset state and Q goes to 0 and when R 0 S 1 the RS FF is in a set state and Q 1 The condition for R 1 S 1 is not allowed There is also the ability to externally reset the RS FF using the RESET NOT pin Pin 4 Table 1 The Next State Table for and RS FF R S QOIld QNew 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 01 0 1 01 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 X 1 1 1 X r Thres 6 Reset 4 Vcc x gt U2 z L1 0 O0ut 3 C2 z aVcc R Q D gt S Q R4 e4 U1 Discharge 7 trVcc 2 NPN Trig 2 Figure 2 Functional block diagram for the LM555 Timer Figure 3 a shows the LM555 timer configured as an astable oscillator the output indefinitely changes states between Vcc and 0 Resistors Ra Rb and capacitor C form the timing network that determines the frequency of oscillation and the duty cycle of the square wave output Figure 3 b gives the same astable oscillator circuit showing also the internal functional block diagram for the LM555 timer Capacitor CX in Figure 3 a is used as a bypass filter for the r
12. Vin o I er o2 002 92 25 At co Equation 25 reduces to _ Vout o0 H o0 Win oy j K Q 26 6 11 The magnitude of H o is equal to K Q and the phase is 90 At resonance the gain of the filter increased by the quality factor Q Figure 11 gives the lowpass filter response for various quality factor Q values with the value of K set equal to one for all cases 20 20 dB dB 0 0 20 20 40 40 1 10 100 140 1404 1 10 100 140 146 Rad Sec Rad Sec a b 20 20 dB dB 0 0 20 20 740 40 1 10 100 140 1404 1 10 100 1 10 1104 Rad Sec Rad Sec c d Figure 11 The magnitude spectrum for the second order lowpass filter given in Equation 16 for various quality factor values The attenuation factor for a second order filter is 40 dB decade as compared for a first order system of 20 dB decade The rate of attenuation is twice as fast as a first order lowpass filter As the Q increases the increase in the gain of the filter response at o wo can be easily seen in Figure 11 comparing Figure 11a to Figure 11b Applying a step input of u t with a corresponding Laplace transform for u t of 1 s yields 642 1 K 002 Vout s oe 27 s2 o 02 Using partial fraction expansion the standard Laplace tables and some algebra gives the step response for a second order lowpass filter as described by Equation 16 as Vout t K ae sinf J1 Boots 28 SA 4Q2
13. and lin as a function of Vin Use 5 different load resistor values Calculate the load regulation For step 12 plot the output efficiency Pout Pin as a function of RL 78XX Three terminal linear regulator 1 SA 9 10 11 Build this linear regulator circuit of Figure 3 using the 7805 regulator and a 1000 ohm resistor for RL Take note of the polarity of the two electrolytic capacitors Double check your wiring Vary the input voltage between 0 and 20 volts and measure Vout Iout and Iin Plot Vout as a function of Vin What is the dropout voltage for this regulator and compare this measured value to the value given in the datasheet Plot Iout and Iin as a function of Vin in Step 2 Compute Pin and Pout as a function Vin From step 6 plot the output efficiency Pout Pin as a function of Vin once the output voltage becomes constant Keeping Vin at 15 volts and varying the RL between 100 and 10000 ohms measure Vout Iout and lin as a function of RL Use 5 different load resistor values Compute Pin and Pout as a function RL For step 9 plot the output efficiency Pout Pin as a function of RL Repeat steps 1 7 for the 7812 voltage regulator 78XX A three terminal linear regulator as an adjustable regulator 1 Calculate the resistors R1 and R2 required to produce an output voltage of 7 volts for the linear regulator circuit of Figure 5 The minimum values for R1 and R2 should be 1000 ohms 3 8 2 Bui
14. 0 But for the periodic pulse signal v t is equal to zero for the time period of T T1 and takes on a value of A from 0 to T Substituting these values is Equation 1 gives T1 Vavg 7 fAdt 2 0 Integration Equation yields an average voltage or DC voltage Vavg of T1 Vavg A T 3 Volts gt Ti e A 0 IK T Time Figure 1 An example of a periodic pulse waveform 4 2 The average voltage Vavg depends on the ratio of T1 to T As T1 decreases Vavg decreases and as T1 increases Vavg increases The ratio of T1 to T is nothing more than the duty cycle D of the periodic waveform Vavg A D 4 A circuit that produces a varying duty cycle periodic waveform is called a pulse width modulator Consider the block diagram shown in Figure 2 This circuit uses a comparator and a sawtooth waveform to generate a varying duty cycle periodic waveform The output of the comparator is A volts if V1 V2 otherwise the output of the comparator is 0 volts For a fixed input Vin if Vin gt V2 then the output of the comparator is A volts As the input V2 increases in value due to the sawtooth waveform increasing in value there is a point in time when V2 becomes greater than Vin and the output of the comparator goes to zero Figure 1 gives the output of the pulse width modulator with T1 equal to Vin and T equal to K Vin Comparator VI V2 Vout A Sawtooth Waveform T K 0 Time Figure 2 A block diagram of a puls
15. 1 Using the parts kit in the lab design the difference amplifier of Figure 3 with a gain of Ad 2 using 1k ohm resistors for R1 and R3 Measure with the multimeter the actual resistance values Compute Acm and Ad using Equations 12 and 14 Also calculate the CMMR using Equation 15 Build the gain of Ad 2 difference amplifier Cie eS 2 10 x 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 19 20 21 24 25 Setting V1 V2 20 volt peak to peak 200 Hz sine wave measure Vout Calculate from step 6 Acm Vout V1 Varying the frequency of the function generator from 100 Hz to 100 kHz repeat steps 6 and 7 Use measured values at frequencies of 1X 2X and 5X for each decade Setting V1 1 volt peak to peak 200 Hz sine wave and V2 V1 To generate V2 V1 build an inverting amplifier with a gain equal to 1 Apply the function generator to V1 input to the difference amplifier and to the inverting amplifier The output of the inverter is now equal to V1 and can be applied to V2 input to the difference amplifier Measure Vout from step 9 Calculate Ad from step 9 Ad Vout 2 V1 Using Equation 15 calculate the CMRR from Acm from Step 7 and Ad from Step 10 Compare step 12 to step 4 Discuss in the laboratory report the result of step 13 Varying the frequency of the function generator from 100 Hz to 100 kHz repeat steps 9 10 and 11 Use measured values at frequencies of 1X 2X and 5
16. 3 co H s 6 4 where wo RC and is known as the cutoff frequency of the filter Lowpass Highpass H i 1 HHO 0 Oc f 0 Oc f a b Bandpass Hg f Band reject Hg f f 0 o 90 o 0 o 90 o c d Figure 3 Normalized frequency response curves of four common one dimensional filters used in Fourier filtering a the lowpass filter b the highpass filter c the bandpass filter and d band reject filter Vcc X TLos4 Vout Vin c U1 C Th Vcc x o Figure 4 A buffered version of a first order lowpass filter Letting s jo and substituting it into Equation 3 gives Vout _ 1 o T The magnitude and phase are then given by 6 5 Vout 1 HGo l m 5 Vin S2 ul Qo and Vout o 2 arg H jo arg Vin o arctan n9 6 At the frequency co the magnitude is equal to 1 A2 and the phase is equal to 45 The magnitude in decibels dB is found by H o in dB 20 log H 7 At the cutoff frequency oo the magnitude in dB is equal to 3 01 dB or simply 3dB Below the cutoff frequency oo the response of the filter is one and the frequency components of the filter input remains unchanged Above the cutoff frequency the frequency components are attenuated at a rate of 20dB per decade dB Degree 0 Arg H o 750 3 4 3 4 1 10 100 1 10 1 10 1 10 100 1 10 1 10 Qo O
17. 4 measure Tp and compare these values to the results expected from Equation 16 20 Set Vg to a sine wave with a peak value of 1 5 volts and an offset of 2 volts so that Vg varies in a sinusoidal manner from 0 5 volt to 3 5 volts Note On the AFG3022 Function Generator make sure that the Frequency CH1 CH2 is Off 2 Measure and record with an oscilloscope Vout and Vg Compare these results to that given in Figure 9 a Report Please follow the procedures in this laboratory manual for writing the report for this experiment Include in your report 1 The equipment used model and serial number 912 Laboratory partners Date and time data was taken Your laboratory report should include the goal of the laboratory experiment The procedures The pre laboratory results All calculations for each step All plots oscilloscope waveforms generated for each step All comparisons calculations 0 For each data collection step in the procedure there should be either data collected a calculation performed a waveform recorded Please include these in the report 11 Short summary discussing what is observed for each of the steps given in the laboratory experiment 12 Also include what you learned c 9 n9 RO 943 APPENDICES Appendix A Available Resistors and Capacitors ff bit LIE ms or mu C ES ca ee eco zL T T T omen sen o WRD zi A 2 Appendix A TT CA E LIME Be a xu un E
18. 5 622 18 Swapping the R s and the C s in the lowpass Butterworth filter design build a 5 order highpass Butterworth filter with a desired gain Kd of 5 19 Applying a 2 volt peak to peak sine wave input with frequencies varying from 10 Hz to 10 kHz plot its magnitude spectrum Measure at least 3 points per decade 1X 2X and 5X 20 Measure Vout at wo 21 Apply a 2 volt peak to peak square wave input with a frequency of 200 Hz Measure and plot using an oscilloscope the step response of this filter 22 Compare the measured high frequency gain to the desired gain of 5 Report Please follow the procedures in this laboratory manual for writing the report for this experiment Include in your report E 20 00 cd en qe UJ b E 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 The equipment used model and serial number Laboratory partners Date and time data was taken Your laboratory report should include the goal of the laboratory experiment The procedures The pre laboratory results All calculations for each step All plots generated for each step All comparisons calculations For each data collection step in the procedure there should be either data collected a calculation performed a waveform recorded Please include these in the report Short summary discussing what is observed for each of the steps given in the laboratory experiment Also include what you learned Make sure to include comparisons with si
19. 5 g The instrumentation amplifier needs two inputs V1 and V2 Simulate this instrumentation amplifier time transient response for an input for V1 equal to a 1 0 volt 200 Hz sine wave and for V2 equal to a 1 0 volt 200 Hz sine wave but 180 degrees out of phase with the V1 h Plot the input voltages as well as the output voltage as a function of time i Repeat steps g and h but this time set the phase difference between V1 and V2 to 0 degrees Repeat steps f g h and i for a gain Ad 4 instrumentation amplifier Design a voltage to current converter that produces an output of Ima for every volt of input using a minimum of Ik ohm resistors and the circuit diagram in Figure 6 l Simulate the voltage to converter designed in step k for V2 3 volts and Vin 2 volts m Vary V3 between 1 volt and 5 volts and plot Iout versus V3 m Discussion Consider the following design problem as shown in Figure 1 A voltage source is connected to a single ended amplifier in which a noise source is introduced onto the wire between the voltage source and the amplifier Vout Amplifier Av A Voltage Source V Figure 1 An example of a single ended amplifier with input noise and a gain of A The output voltage is then given by VoutZ V N AZ V A N A 1 The design issue is that the noise is introduced only onto the signal wire If the layout of Figure 1 is modified so that a second signal V on a second wire is transmitted
20. 6 30 ma OSHA Muscle contractions can prevent the person from moving away the energized circuit Possible death can occur as low 50 ma For a person that is wet the body resistance can be as low as 1000 ohms A voltage of 50 volts can result in death Do not touch someone who is being shocked while still in contact with the electrical conductor or you may also be electrocuted Instead press the Emergency Disconnect red button located near the door to the laboratory This shuts off all power except the lights Make sure your hands are dry The resistance of dry unbroken skin is relatively high and thus reduces the risk of shock Skin that is broken wet or damp with sweat has a low resistance When working with an energized circuit work with only your right hand keeping your left hand away from all conductive material This reduces the likelihood of an accident that results in current passing through your heart Be cautious of rings watches and necklaces which increase the conductivity and contact area Skin beneath a ring or watch is damp lowering the skin resistance Shoes covering the feet are much safer than sandals If the victim isn t breathing find someone certified in CPR Be quick Some of the staff in the Department Office are certified in CPR If the victim is unconscious or needs an ambulance call 911 If able the victim should go to the Student Health Services for examination and treatment Fire Transistors and o
21. For Vin 0 the op amp output is positive and D1 is forward biased on and D2 is reversed biased off Under this condition the output Vout is the same as described by Equation 18 But when Vin gt 0 the op amp s output is negative D1 is off and D2 is forward biased on D2 forward biased on keeps the feedback loop closed so that V Vt 0 The current flowing in diode D2 is equal to the current flowing in R1 Vin R1 With diode D2 forward biased on and V equal to zero the op amp s output is equal to Vx and the op amp output is kept from going to its most negative value negative saturation What makes the circuit of Figure 11 faster than the circuit of Figure 10 is that turning off the diodes is usually faster than an op amp coming out of saturation The Ideal Full Wave Rectifier Consider a sine wave input Vin as described in Equation 1 as input to the half wave rectifier given in Figure 11 with diodes the direction of diodes D1 and D2 swapped This produces a negative going half wave rectifier output V2 as shown in Figures 12 a and b Next consider V3 Vin 2 V2 20 541 1N4148 D2 1N4148 Figure 11 Half wave rectifier without op amp saturation The best way to analyze Equation 20 is to determine V3 when Vin 0 and when Vin is 0 When Vin 0 the output V2 of the inverted have wave rectifier output Figure 12 b is zero and Equation 20 reduces to V3 Vin 2 0 Vin for Vin
22. R and charging the capacitor C Once the peak is reached the capacitor is charged to its maximum value of A Vx As Vin decreases below its peak value of A the diode turns off At this point the energy stored in the capacitor C is delivered to the resistor R and the capacitor starts to discharge as highlighted in the curve Y The voltage difference between the peak value of A Vx and the minimum voltage is known as the ripple voltage Vr and is given by A Vx Vr where f is the frequency in Hertz of Vin as defined in Equation 1 For a full wave rectifier the period is half that of a half wave rectifier or the frequency is twice that of a half wave rectifier A Vx VWr DRC te The average output voltage Vout for the half wave rectifier is the given as Vout average A Vx C L HEN 13 5 7 Vout b Figure 7 Filtering the output of a a half wave and b full wave rectifier circuit Vout 0 time Figure 8 Filtered half wave rectifier output using a capacitor of Value C and for a full wave rectifier 1 2 Vr Vout A 2 Vx 1 14 out average x n Tr 14 5 8 with Vr defined by Equations 11 and 12 respectively For Vr A Vx or Vr lt lt A 2 Vx the average voltage output reduces to Vout average A Vx for the half wave rectifier and Vout average A 2 Vx for the full wave rectifier The Ideal Half Wave Rectifier The major
23. R1 8 IL ce RL Gate n C R2 Pulse Width Modulator Figure 4 A switching regulator with energy storage Vin L1 Vout CN L IL RL NZ Figure 5 The model of the switching regulator when the MOSFET is on L1 Vout B f L RL D1 T Ev Figure 6 The model of the switching regulator when the MOSFET is off ON lt Since there is no longer an applied source the current through the inductor L and the load RL decreases at the rate of tL IL K e p 7 where K is the current flowing in the inductor and the load RL when the MSOFET turns off Figure 7 shows the current flowing in the load RL and the inductor L1 as a function of time IL MOSFET MOSFET MOSFET MOSFET ON OFF ON OFF Time Figure 7 A plot of load current as a function of time Since the voltage across a resistor is equal to its current times its resistance Vout IL RL Vout is simply the same waveform that is given in Figure 7 but scaled by RL The magnetic energy stored in the inductor when the MOSFET is on is delivered to the load when the MOSFET is off essentially providing for continuous current flow when the MOSFET is on and off To maintain a constant Vout an additional energy storage element a capacitor is placed across the load RL The final switching regulator is given in Figure 8 Vin Drain Source L1 Vout 005 L D Pulse Width Modulator Figure 8
24. Record the model and serial number of the scope power supply multimeter and function generator used in laboratory experiment When measuring any values make sure to measure all inputs as well as the output of the circuit Do not rely on the values indicated on the instruments Always measure all signal values Before turning any power on double check the wiring to make sure that it is correct Measure all resistors that are used in the amplifier circuits using the multimeter and record these values Use all measured values to determine experimental results such as gain and cutoff frequency or quality factor Comparing data means to calculate the percent difference between two values For example theoretical values versus measured values Comparing data graphically means to plot the data on the same plot to see how the data overlaps The square wave used with laboratory experiment is assumed to have a 5096 duty cycle First order Filters l 2 Build a first order lowpass filter using the circuit given in Figure 4 with oo 10 000 rad sec minimum filter resistor should be 10kQ Applying a 1 volt peak sine wave input with frequencies varying from 100 Hz to 100 kHz plot its magnitude spectrum Measure at least 3 points per decade 1X 2X and 5X Determine the attenuation factor in dB Decade Apply a 1 volt peak to peak square wave input with a frequency of 500 Hz Measure and plot using an oscilloscope the s
25. The final switching regulator circuit diagram When designing this regulator several parameters must be adhered to First the maximum currents for the MOSFET the inductor and the diode must be observed The polarity and maximum voltage of the capacitors that are used must be followed And finally the maximum power dissipation allowed for the MOSFET and its maximum temperature rating must be included in the design The switching regulator presented here as shown in Figure 8 is available from many semiconductor manufacturers in a single integrated circuit IC Typically the IC includes the MOSFET as well as the pulse width modulator The external parts that must be included are the inductor diode and the capacitor R1 and R2 are usually also included in the IC The switching regulator presented in Figure 8 is known as a BUCK regulator since Vout Vin There are other switching regulator topologies that allow for generating an output voltage that is greater than the input voltage These switching regulators are known as BOOST regulators Another common topology is the single ended primary inductor converter SEPIC switching regulator This regulator uses two inductors and allows for both Vout Vin and Vout Vin conditions to be achieved in one design topology The main advantage that a switching regulator has over a linear regulator is power efficiency From the linear regulator laboratory experiment the power dissipation across a li
26. Triple Power supply TL081 TL 084 family of operational amplifiers 2N2222A NPN transistor Capacitors available in the laboratory Resistors available in the laboratory Pre laboratory Read this laboratory experiment carefully to become familiar with the background and the procedural steps in this experiment Carefully read each section and become familiar with the equations for each circuit Using the simulation package of your choice in which you are the most familiar with Multisim Workbench or LTSpice IV simulate the following circuits The equations required for gain Ay are given in the appropriate sections for the difference amplifier instrumentation amplifier and the voltage to current converter a Design a gain Ad 2 difference amplifier using a minimum of 1k ohm resistors and the circuit diagram in Figure 3 b The difference amplifier needs two inputs V1 and V2 Simulate this difference amplifier time transient response for an input for V1 equal to a 1 0 volt 200 Hz sine wave and for V2 equal to a 1 0 volt 200 Hz sine wave but 180 degrees out of phase with the V1 c Plot the input voltages as well as the output voltage as a function of time d Repeat steps b and c but this time set the phase difference between V1 and V2 to 0 degrees e Repeat steps a b c and d for a gain Ad 4 difference amplifier f Design a gain Ad 2 instrumentation amplifier using a minimum of 1k ohm resistors and the circuit diagram in Figure
27. Vcc for Vin gt Vcc RI R2 Vout R1 6 Vcc for Vin lt Vcc R1 R2 Figure 4 is a graph of Vout versus Vin showing the transition of Vout from Vcc to Vcc when TA RI Vin Vcc R R 7 Since the voltage divider circuit of Figure 3 does nothing more than produce a reference voltage that sets the value of Vin that will result in Vout changing states this voltage divider circuit can be replaced by the label Vref which can be called the reference voltage Vcc ie n TL084 m Vcc Vout ors R2 U1 Vref Vece R1 Figure 3 A simple comparator circuit Vout 4 Vcc Vout Vcc Figure 4 Vout versus Vin for the comparator circuit of Figure 3 7 4 Changing the inputs to the voltage comparator circuit given in Figure 3 as shown in Figure 5 produces the output of Vout Vcc for Vin lt Vref Vout ie 0 for Vin gt Vref 8 Vcc Vec R2 Vref A TL084 Vout R1 Vin Ut C TWMecc NU Figure 5 Another comparator circuit Figure 6 gives its corresponding plot of Vout versus Vin The difference in the two comparator circuits of Figures 3 and 5 is the polarity of the output with respect to the input Vin For figure 3 Vout Vcc for RI Vin gt Vcc Rl R2 9 while for the comparator circuit for Figure 5 Vout Vcc for RI Vin lt Vcc RI R2 10 Vout Vcc Vcc RI R1 R2 Vin Vout Vcc Figure 6 Vout versus Vin for the
28. a minimum of 1k ohm resistors b Simulate this non inverting amplifier generating the time transient response for a 1 0 volt 200 Hz sine wave input Plot the input as well as the output voltages as a function of time c Repeat steps a and b for a gain of 10 d Design a gain Av 3 inverting amplifier using a minimum of lk ohm resistors e Simulate this inverting amplifier generating the time transient response for a 1 0 volt 200 Hz sine wave input Plot the input as well as the output voltages as a function of time f Repeat step d and e for a gain of Av 10 g Compare the results of steps b with e and c with f h Simulate an unity gain buffer amplifier generating the time transient response for a 1 0 volt 200 Hz sine wave input Plot the input as well as the output voltages as a function of time i Design a summing amplifier such that Vout 3V1 2V2 where V1 and V2 are input sources and Vout is the output from the summing amplifier j Simulate this summing amplifier generating the time transient response for a 1 0 volt 200 Hz sine wave input for V1 and a 2 volt DC input for V2 V2 a constant value of 2 volts Plot the input as well as the output voltages as a function of time Discussion An operational amplifier op amp is a multistage amplifier where its output is proportional to the difference between the two inputs Vout Agq V V5 1 1 2 The schematic symbol for an op amp is a triangle with th
29. along with the original V in which both wires are collocated Then any noise introduced on the wires is the same on both wires and the difference between the two signal lines produces a noise free output Figure 2 shows the block diagram of this configuration Since the noise is common to both wires taking the difference results in cancellation of the noise This common noise of both wires is referred to as common mode noise M VI Voltage Amplifier Source Noise N Av A Vout V2 Figure 2 An example of a differential amplifier with input noise The amplifier used in Figure 2 is a difference amplifier with Vout defined as Vout Ad V1 V2 2 But V1 and V2 can be written in terms of the differential voltage sources as V1 V N 3 And V2 V N 4 Substituting V1 and V2 into Equation 2 gives Vout Ad V N CV N 5 Which reduces to Vout Ad 2 V N N Ad 2 V 6 Vout contains twice the signal and no common mode noise An example where a difference amplifier is used is to remove 60 Hz noise for an audio system transmitted over a long cable It is not uncommon to transmit an audio signal differentially and then use a difference amplifier at the receiving end to remove any common mode 60 Hz noise that might be injected in the cable Figure 3 gives the schematic of using a single op amp to implement a difference amplifier Vout depends on the four resistors R1 R4 RA RI R2 R2 MEN a Volta Vasa RU I
30. conditions Equation 22 is for the ideal case assuming an ideal op amp Typically R2 is selected such that R2 set to be slightly greater than 2 R1 to guarantee oscillation R2 is usually implemented using a variable resistor and is increased in value to the point where oscillation begins Equations 22 and 25 are the two design equations that are needed to design and build a phase shift oscillator Usually C is chosen and Equation 22 is used to find R R1 is chosen and then Equation 25 is used to find the minimum value of R2 Another type of oscillator or waveform generator is one that generates a square wave output using a Schmitt trigger and an RC network Figure 5 gives the circuit diagram for a Schmitt trigger oscillator The two inputs to the op amp can be written in terms of Vout as R1 e 7RI R2 Vout 26 and V Vout 27 AME MT RCs 1 Resistors R1 and R2 form the positive feedback that is needed for a Schmitt trigger From laboratory experiment 7 for RI Vout 4 Vcc when V lt Vcc Ri R2 28 For the case when Vout Vcc 8 7 RI Vout Vcc when V Vcc RIR 29 If Vout Vcc then by Equation 28 Vout switches to Vcc when V V V hen V gt V 30 out Vcc gt Vcc when gt VCC RT a RD C 30 and if Vout Vcc then by Equation 29 Vout switches to Vcc when RI Vout Vcc Vcc when V Vcc RI R2 31 Equations 28 31 assume that Vout is a rail to rail op amp with
31. for the DPO 4034B oscilloscope http www 2 tek com cmswpt madetails lotr ct MA amp cs2mur amp ci 16272 amp lc EN Equipment Oscilloscope DPO 4034B Function Generator AFG3022B Triple Power supply Capacitors available in the laboratory Resistors available in the laboratory use a minimum of 1k resistors Multimeter TL084 Operational Amplifier Pre laboratory Read this laboratory experiment carefully to become familiar with the background and the procedural steps in this experiment Carefully read each section and become familiar with the equations for each circuit Using the simulation package of your choice in which you are the most familiar with Mulitsim Workbench or LTSpice IV simulate the various oscillator and waveform generator circuits a Using an op amp with Vcc set to 15 volts and Vcc set to 15 volts design and simulate the phase shift oscillator circuit of Figure 1 Set o 5 773 rad sec Adjust R2 until oscillation occurs somewhere above 8 R Make sure to run the simulation for a long enough time b From the output waveform determine the frequency of oscillation and the peak to peak value c Increase R2 to 15 R and repeat step b Discuss the difference observed in between steps b and c 8 1 d Using an op amp with Vcc set to 15 volts and Vcc set to 15 volts design and simulate the Wien bridge oscillator circuit of Figure 3 Set wo 10 000 rad sec Adjust R2 until oscillation occurs so
32. frequency components Figure 3 b gives a typical highpass filter This filter passes the high frequency components above the cutoff frequency o and attenuates the low frequency components Figure 3 c gives the magnitude spectrum for a bandpass filter This filter passes frequency components in the range of frequencies to 7 with the center frequency of the pass band given by o The final filter is the band reject filter given in Figure 3 d This filter attenuates the frequency components in the range of to o2 There are many types of electronic filters that are available Many of these filters come directly from electronic circuit designs that have existed for many decades Some of the most common ones are the Butterworth elliptical Chebyshev and Bessel filters as well as the simple first order resistor and capacitor network and the second order resistor capacitor and inductor network In this laboratory experiment the buffered version of the lowpass and highpass resistor capacitor filter circuits will be investigated along with the lowpass and highpass second order resistor capacitor and op amp filter circuits known as active filters First Order Filters Figure 4 shows the circuit used to implement a buffered version of a first order lowpass filter The op amp is nothing more than a unity gain buffer isolating the output of the R C filter The transfer function of this filter is given as Vout s 1 Vin s s 1 1
33. is the same as Vin when Vin gt 2 Vx except it has been reduced in amplitude by 2 two diode drops of Vx Vout Vin 2 Vx and assuming Vin peak gt gt 2 Vx When Vin lt 2 Vx then Vout is the inverted version of Vin Vx except it also has been reduced in amplitude by two diode drops of Vx Vout 2 Vx Vin In other words Voutz Vin 2 Vx 7 where is the absolute value Vin Vout As A 2Vx 0 0 1 0 time 0 time Figure 6 Vin and Vout as a function of time for a full wave rectifier The average or DC value for Vout is also non zero For the full wave rectifier the average is given by T Vavg 2 3 f 1 A 2 Vx sino ldt l 8 0 5 6 Since Vout is the same for 0 lt t lt T 2 and T 2 lt t lt T the integral is twice the integral over 0 t T 2 T 2 2 Vavg T f 1 A 2 Vx sin ot dt 9 0 Performing the integration gives 2 A 2 Vx Vavg a 10 The average or DC value is twice the average value of the half wave rectifier given in Equation 6 Rectifier Filtering In many applications it is desired to convert the output of rectification either half or full wave to a constant DC output This can be accomplished by adding a capacitor C in parallel with the resistor R in Figures 3 a and 5 as shown in Figure 7 Figure 8 shows the output of the filtered half wave rectifier circuit The curve highlighted in X is when the diode is delivering power to the load
34. laboratory experiment 2 Download the datasheet for the op amp used This will be needed to obtain the pin out of the op amp used When comparing datasheet data values to experimental data use the typical values in the datasheet if given 3 Make sure that the power supply to the op amp is correctly wired as not to apply the incorrect polarity to the op amp 4 Initially set Vcc 15 volts and Vcc to 15 volts 5 When measuring any values make sure to measure all inputs as well as the output of the circuit Do not rely on the values indicated on the instruments Always measure all signal values 6 The output impedance of the signal generator is 50 ohms If the generator is connected to a load other than 50 ohms the displayed Amplitude Offset and High Low values will be different than what is selected on the generator Usually a factor of 2 larger 7 Before turning any power on double check the wiring to make sure that it is correct 8 Measure all resistors that are used in the amplifier circuits using the multimeter and record these values 9 Use all measured values to determine experimental results such as gain and current 10 Comparing data means to calculate the percent difference between two values For example theoretical values versus measured values 11 Comparing data graphically means to plot the data on the same plot to see how the data overlaps 12 Obtain the pin out for the 2N2222 transistor Difference Amplifier
35. limitation with the full wave and half wave rectifiers presented above is the forward biased voltage drop of the diodes that must be achieved before the diodes conduct For the half wave rectifier Vin must exceed Vx and for the full wave rectifier must exceed 2 Vx before the diodes start conducting The ideal rectifier circuits use the open loop gain of the op amp to remove the effects of the forward biased voltage diode Vx Consider the ideal half wave rectifier shown in Figure 9 Assuming initially Vin 0 and op amp output is zero Then since op amp output Ad Vt V Ad Vin V 15 where Ad is the open loop gain of the op amp V must also be initially zero Since V and op amp s output are both zero the voltage across the diode Vd op amp output V is zero and the diode is off If Vin is now allowed to go negative Vin 0 then by Equation 15 the op amp s output goes negative and the diode voltage Vd becomes negative and remains off Since the diode is off and no current flows through the diode the current flowing in the resistor I 0 This results in zero voltage across the resistor and Vout 0 Under this condition the feedback loop is open and the output of the op amp is at maximum allowed negative voltage negative rail Next consider Vin positive Vin 0 Under this condition from Equation 15 the op amp s output heads toward a positive voltage turning on the diode The current flowing through the diode als
36. resistor and calculate the current in each resistor What is the voltage across the 1k ohm resistor that represents the light bulb Build the unity gain buffer circuit given in Figure 13 with R at the output initially set to zero a wire Connect a 0 001 microfarad capacitor to the output of the op amp to ground Set Vin to 2 0 volt peak to peak 1 KHz square wave Using an oscilloscope measure and record the output at Vout Add a 1k ohm resistor as shown in Figure 13 for the resistor labeled R Using an oscilloscope measure and record the output at Vout Record and note the change in Vout from step 12 Disconnect the load 0 001 microfarad capacitor and set R back to zero ohms Set Vcc 5 volts and Vcc to 5 volts Apply a DC input and measure the output Vout as Vin is varied from 5 Volts to 5volts Make sure to obtain at least 1 point at each integer voltage value Use the signal generator as the input for this step Set the voltage peak to peak to its minimum value of 20 millivolts and to change the DC value use different offset values on the generator Plot Vout versus Vin and discuss what is observed in the laboratory report Lookup the Common Mode input Voltage range If the inputs are allowed over the range of Vcc to Vcc then this operational amplifier is also referred to as a rail to rail input op amp Report Please follow the procedures in this laboratory manual for writing the report for this experiment Include in your repo
37. the voltage across the capacitor C and Vout as a function on time The capacitor initially has a voltage 1 3 Vcc and starts charging toward Vcc The capacitor continues to charge to Vcc until the voltage across the capacitor reaches 2 3 Vcc At this point Vt gt V of C2 and V V of CI yielding the output of C2 1 and the output of Cl 0 This sets the RS FF to a reset condition changing Q 0 The output Vout 0 and Qnot of U1 is now 1 turning on the transistor Q1 This starts discharging the capacitor C toward 0 When the voltage across the capacitor goes below 2 3 Vcc V lt V of C2 and Vt gt V of Cl yielding the output C2 0 and the output of Cl 0 The RS FF is now in hold condition leaving Q 0 of the RS FF and the transistor Q1 on continuing to discharge the capacitor Vcc 4 m m 2 3 Vcc 1 3 Vcc 0 TI T2 time Figure 4 Vout and the voltage across the capacitor C as a function of time 9 5 The time T1 it takes to charge to 2 3 Vcc is found by substituting 2 3 Vcc for Vpin_2 t into Equation 2 and solving for t T1 In 2 Ra Rb C 3 During the charge cycle the capacitor C discharges through Rb and the transistor Q1 The voltage across the capacitor is then defined as Vpin 2 t 2 3 4 Vcc e t TD Rb C 4 The capacitor C continues to discharge until it reaches a voltage of 1 3 Vcc At this point Vt V of C2 and V gt V of Cl yielding t
38. to as an instrumentation amplifier This amplifier contains the difference amplifier of Figure 3 and two additional op amp stages A closer look at the circuits shows that both V1 and V2 are tied directly to the non inverting input of these two op amps Since the input impedance is very high the current into an op amp is approximately zero R5 R1 R2 Ex v v2 ae Va a R6 cc R7 Vcc EC Vout R3 toc cc R4 Figure 5 An instrumentation amplifier designed using three op amps The voltage Va for this amplifier is given as R5 R5 Va V2 S 1 vi R7 18 and for Vb as R6 R6 Vb VI i V2 R7 19 Since the right most stage of Figure 5 is a difference amplifier Vout is found by substituting Va for V2 and Vb for V1 into Equation 7 M vi RS i v2 RS R4 RI R2 outs R7 R7 R34R4 RI J R5 R5 R2 2 Sa a Rearranging and combining V1 and V2 gives vou vil RS t R4 RR m R7 1 R34R4 RI R7RI R6 R4 RIs R2 R2 R5 v2 s or RI Ja RI RE S 1 21 Using a similar approach to find Equation 11 the common mode gain is given by kona Yoni Rs i R4 RI R2 R5 R2 cM Vem R7 R3 R4 RI R7RI R6 R4 RI R2 R2 RS5 R7 CER RI RI ICE 1 22 Ideally Acm should be zero To find the output when V1 is not equal to V2 then V1 is set to Vd 2 and V2 is set to and equal and opposite value of Vd 2 Substituting these values
39. values indicated on the instruments Always measure all signal values Before turning any power on double check the wiring to make sure that it is correct Measure all resistors that are used in the amplifier circuits using the multimeter and record these values Use all measured values to determine experimental results such as gain and current Comparing data means to calculate the percent difference between two values For example theoretical values versus measured values Comparing data graphically means to plot the data on the same plot to see how the data overlaps Comparator Circuits l 2 US a de Download the National Semiconductor LM393 voltage comparator datasheet and become familiar with this part Using an op amp with Vcc set to 15 volts and Vcc set to 15 volts build the comparator circuit of Figure 3 Use a 20 volt peak to peak 500 Hz triangle waveform for the input Vin DC offset 0 volts Plot Vout as a function of time for Vref I volt using an oscilloscope Determine the voltage Vin where Vout switches from Vcc to Vcc Repeat Steps 3 5 for Vref 2 volts and 8 volts Using an op amp with Vcc set to 15 volts and Vcc set to 15 volts build 742 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 23 26 2T 28 29 30 the comparator circuit of Figure 5 Use a 20 volt peak to peak 500 Hz triangle waveform for the input Vin DC offset 0
40. voltage comparator Voltage comparators require either a dual power supply like an op amp or a single supply The type of power supply that is required depends on the voltage range of the voltage comparator s output The output voltage Vout for a comparator is Va for V gt V Vout l ra 1 Vb for Vt lt V Figure 2 gives a diagram of Vout versus Vin The output has two possible states State 1 for V gt V and the second state for V lt V As with an op amp the current flowing in the two inputs I and I can be assumed to be zero When an op amp is used as a voltage comparator the open loop equation of the op amp from laboratory Experiment 1 is Vout Aod V t V 2 where Aod is the open loop gain of the op amp Since Aod is very large with Vout Aod 3 V V z and with Vout bounded between the two powers supply voltages Vcc lt Vout lt Vcc 4 if Vt gt V then Vout must be equal Vcc the positive output rail of the op amp But if V lt V then Vout Vcc the negative rail of the op amp As mentioned earlier V and V must be maintained within the allowed common mode input of the op amp Vt gt V Vout Vb Figure 2 Vout versus Vin for a voltage comparator Figure 3 is a common comparator circuit with Vin connected to V with a dual power supply for the comparator of Vcc and Vcc Using the voltage divider equation V is given by 7 3 RI V Vcc RI 4 R2 5 and i RI
41. volts Plot Vout as a function of time for Vref 1volt using an oscilloscope Determine the voltage Vin where Vout switches from Vcc to Vcc Repeat Steps 8 10 for Vref 2 volts and 8 volts Using an op amp with Vcc set to 15 volts and Vcc set to 15 volts build the comparator circuit of Figure 10 Let R2 10k and R1 1k Use a 10 volt peak to peak 500 Hz triangle waveform for the input Vin DC offset 0 volts Determine the voltage Vin where Vout switches from Vcc to Vcc Plot Vout as a function of time using an oscilloscope Determine Vout max and Vout min from the oscilloscope traces Replace Vcc with Vout max and Vcc with Vout min in Equations 22 25 Compare the Equations 22 25 with Step 15 Using an op amp with Vcc set to 15 volts and Vcc set to 15 volts build the comparator circuit of Figure 12 Let R2 10k and R1 1k Use a 10 volt peak to peak 500 Hz triangle waveform for the input Vin DC offset 0 volts Determine the voltage Vin where Vout switches from Vcc to Vcc Plot Vout as a function of time using an oscilloscope Determine Vout max and Vout min from the oscilloscope traces Replace Vcc with Vout max and Vcc with Vout min in Equations 30 33 Compare the Equations 30 33 with Step 22 Repeat steps 2 5 and steps 7 10 using the LM393 comparator with around a 2k pull up resistor Build the pulse width modulator circuit of Figure 14 Use a 0 to 10 volt 1000 Hz sawtooth wave
42. wave with no DC offset Obtain a plot of Vin and Vout versus time Repeat Step d for Vin equal to a 200 Hz 10 volt peak sine wave with no DC offset Repeat Step b for Figure 7a for R 1K and C 470 pf Obtain the peak to peak ripple voltage How does this value compare to Equation 11 What is the DC voltage at the output Vout How does this value compare to Equation 13 Repeat Step d for Figure 7b for R 1K and C 470 uf Obtain the peak to peak ripple voltage How does this value compare to Equation 12 What is the DC voltage at the output Vout How does this value compare to Equation 14 Simulate the ideal half wave rectifier given in Figure 9 for R 1k Set Vin to a 200 Hz 5 volt peak sine wave with no DC offset Also set Vcc 15 volts and Vcc 15 volts Use this same value for all steps unless otherwise directed Obtain a plot of Vin and Vout versus time Change the diode orientation in Figure 9 and repeat Step h Change the input frequency of the sine wave to 2000 Hz 20kHz and 200 kHz and repeat Step h Simulate the ideal half wave rectifier given in Figure 11 for R 1k Set Vin to a 200 Hz 5 volt peak sine wave with no DC offset Obtain a plot of Vin and Vout versus tme Change the diode orientations in Figure 11 and repeat Step k Simulate the ideal full wave rectifier given in Figure 13 for R1 and R2 1k Set Vin to a 200 Hz 5 volt peak sine wave with no DC offset Obtain a plot of Vin V2 and Vout versus tim
43. C1 1 from Figure 2 and starts capacitor C charging through Ra As the trigger input returns to its steady state value of Vcc 2 Vt lt V of Cl and Vt lt V of C2 see Figure 2 yielding the output C1 0 and the output of C2 0 This sets the RS FF to a hold condition leaving RS FF output Q 1 see Figure 2 With Q 1 Qnot 0 and the transistor Q1 is still off and the capacitor continues to charge through Ra toward Vcc This capacitor continues to charge until it reaches a voltage of 2 3 Vcc At this point Vt gt V of Cl and Vt V of C2 yielding the output C1 1 and the output of C2 0 setting the RS FF to a reset condition This turns on Q1 discharging the capacitor C to 0 Starting with Equation 1 with Vf Vcc and the initial voltage across the capacitor C Vi 0 gives Vpin 2 t Vce 1 e URaC 14 The capacitor C charges towards Vcc until it reaches the value 2 3 Vcc At this point Vt lt V of Cl and V gt V of C2 yielding the output C1 0 and the output of C2 1 This sets the RS FF to a reset condition leaving Q 0 With Q 0 Qnot 1 transistor Q1 turns on and the capacitor discharges to zero where the capacitor voltage stays at this value until another negative going trigger pulse occurs on the trigger input The total time Tp it takes the capacitor to reach 2 3 Vcc is found by substituting this value into Equation 14 and solving for t Tpz1n 3 Ra C 15 Figure 8 shows Vout the vol
44. LABORATORY MANUAL DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL amp COMPUTER ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL FLORIDA EEL 4309 Electronics II Revised January 2012 Table of Contents Safety Introduction Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Experiment 3 Experiment 4 Experiment 5 Experiment 6 Experiment 7 Experiment 8 Experiment 9 Appendices Appendix A Safety Rules and Operating Procedures When in Doubt Read This Linear Operational Amplifier Applications 2 5 Wks More Linear Operational Amplifier Applications 2 5Wks Linear Voltage Regulators 1 Wk Switching Voltage Regulators 1 Wk Precision Diodes and Applications 1 Wk Active Filters 2 Wks Voltage Comparators and Schmitt Triggers 1 Wk Oscillators and Waveform Generators 1 Wk The 555 Timer 1 Wk Available Resistors and Capacitors ToC 1 Safety Rules and Operating Procedures 1 Note the location of the Emergency Disconnect red button near the door to shut off power in an emergency Note the location of the nearest telephone map on bulletin board 2 Students are allowed in the laboratory only when the instructor is present 3 Open drinks and food are not allowed near the lab benches 4 Report any broken equipment or defective parts to the lab instructor Do not open remove the cover or attempt to repair any equipment 5 When the lab exercise is over all instruments except computers must be turned off Return substitu
45. R2 25 Figure 11 gives a plot of Vout versus Vin for the case when Vref 0 volts Note the hysteresis that exist between transitioning Vout from Vcc to Vcc and from Vcc to Vcc of 2 RI Hysteresis value Vcc R C 26 This type of comparator circuit with hysteresis is commonly called a Schmitt Trigger Vout 4 Vcc RI Vcc R2 RI Vin V cc R2 Vout Vcc Figure 11 Vout versus Vin for the comparator circuit of Figure 8 Figurel2 gives another commonly used Schmitt trigger circuit Using the same approach in solving the Schmitt trigger circuit given in Figure 8 Consider the comparator circuit given in Figure 12 Starting with Vcc for Vt gt V Vout l uen 27 Vcc for Vt V 7 9 Vout ay Vcc NU Figure 12 A comparator circuit with hysteresis Schmitt Trigger But V Vin Vcc for V Vi Vout t cc for n Q8 Vcc for Vt lt Vin Solving for V gives RI V Vout RIR 29 Substituting Equation 29 into Equation 28 for the case where Vout Vcc Rl Vout Vcc when Vin lt Vcc RI R2 30 For the case when Vout Vcc Vout becomes V hen Vi V 31 Vout Vcc when Vin gt Vcc Ry Rp 31 If Vout Vcc then by Equation 30 Vout switches to Vcc when h b RI 32 Vout Vcc gt Vcc when Vin gt Vcc RI R2 32 and if Vout Vcc then by Equation 31 Vout switches to Vcc when RI Vout Vcc Vcc when Vin lt Vcc RI R2 33
46. RI a Dividing both sides by Vd the difference mode gain Ad can be found Vout RA RI R2 R2 E irum RI x 9 Setting R1 R3 and R2 R4 gives a common mode gain of zero and a difference mode gain of Ad R2 Rl A measure of the performance of a difference amplifier is the ratio of the absolute value of difference mode gain to the absolute value of the common mode gain and commonly called the Common Mode Rejection Ratio CMRR lAdl CMRR 20 log10 ren 15 The CMRR is commonly given in Decibels and higher the value the better the performance of the difference amplifier Since operational amplifiers are essentially difference amplifiers the datasheet associated with the op amp usually specifies the op amps CMRR One important fact of the op amps is that the CMRR is a function of the frequency of operations and the CMRR tends to decrease in value as the frequency of operation increases as shown in Figure 4 The main limitations of the difference amplifier given in Figure 2 is that the input impedance is not very high and the input impedance of the two inputs is not the same The input impedance for the V1 input is Z V1 R3 R4 16 and for the V2 is ZN2 SRI 17 CMRR 100 dB 60 dB 20 dB 100 1k 10k 100k Hz Figure 4 A typical plot of the CMRR of an op amp as a function of frequency Another version of a difference amplifier where both inputs have high impedance is given in Figure 5 This amplifier is commonly referred
47. RI RI U If the sum R1 R2 is set equal to R3 R4 then Equation 7 reduces to RA R2 Vout V1 RI V2 RI c 8 Finally if R4 R2 which implies R1 R3 then equation simplifies to R2 Vout RI V1 V2 9 and Vout is equal to the difference of V1 and V2 with a differential gain R2 Ad R 10 R1 R2 Nvs m VCC V1 R3 zu Ge R4 is ay Vout VCC Figure 3 A single op amp difference amplifier Ideally if R1 perfectly matches R3 and R2 perfectly matches R4 when V1 equals V2 then Vout should be equal to zero Unfortunately this can not always be achieved with the resistor values that are selected All resistors used have a finite tolerance value This depends on the resistors used but the most common resistor tolerances are 1 5 and 10 To verify the performance of a difference amplifier V1 and V2 are set to a common voltage value of Vcm The output is then measured From Equation 7 with V1 V2 Vcm Vout becomes 11 RA RI R2 R2 out Vem R34 R4 RI RI Dividing both sides of Equation 11 by Vcc gives the common mode gain Acm as Vout R4 RI R2 R2 ou Re 12 cm Vem R3 R4 RI RI Ideally Acm should be zero To find the output when V1 is not equal to V2 then V is set to Vd 2 and V2 is set to an equal and opposite value of Vd 2 Substituting these values into Equation 7 gives NUN Vd RA RI R2 Rr 13 MSSE RIERA RI
48. T T T Time Figure 8 Vout the voltage across the capacitor C Vcapacitor and the trigger input Pin 2 as a function of time for monostable oscillator circuit given in Figure 6 Vcc SENE I 10k E Ten enn ve pod Mia 1N4148 B TRIG DIS Ouf D2 1N4148 v3 R2 Out OUT THRS 4 NE555 JE 10k Vcc RST Cv m S7 m ce TLO84 Vg u2 cc NZ RX RY 1K 1K Figure 9 A LM555 timer configured as a pulse width modulator 9 10 oa m ae Vcc 10v p 10v 16V4 14v4 av Lay Tm BY He N av mI LT av Pte ov 2V4 Vg 4V4 6Y T T T T T T T T T 0 Time Figure 10 An example of using the LM555 timer as a pulse width modulator Procedure General Setup 1 Record the model and serial number of the scope power supply multimeter and function generator used in laboratory experiment 2 When measuring any values make sure to measure all inputs as well as the output of the circuit Do not rely on the values indicated on the instruments Always measure all signal values 3 Before turning any power on double check the wiring to make sure that it is correct 4 Measure all resistors that are used in the amplifier circuits using the multimeter and record these values 5 Use all measured values to determi
49. T gives the total time T1 with Vout Vcc TI RC 46 841 The total period of oscillation is then defined as Tp RC RC 2 RC 47 And the frequency of oscillation pubem l Tp 2 RC 44 Figure 7 gives the signal waveforms for Vout and Vx Also shown in Figure 6 are T1 and T2 Vcc Vout 3 Vcc 24 Vx Vx Vout Vcc 2 T1 T2 Vcc Time Figure 8 The Triangle Square wave waveforms Procedure General Setup 1 Record the model and serial number of the oscilloscope power supply multimeter and function generator used in laboratory experiment 2 When measuring any values make sure to measure all inputs as well as the output of the circuit Do not rely on the values indicated on the instruments Always measure all signal values 3 Before turning any power on double check the wiring to make sure that it is correct 4 Measure all resistors that are used in the amplifier circuits using the multimeter and record these values 5 Use all measured values to determine experimental results such as gain and current 6 Comparing data means to calculate the percent difference between two values For example theoretical values versus measured values 8 12 T7 Comparing data graphically means to plot the data on the same plot to see how the data overlaps Oscillators and Waveform Generator Circuits l 99 10 11 12 13 Using an op am
50. Vout max Vcc and Vout min Vcc If the maximum and minimum Vout is any other values than Vcc is replaced with Vout max and Vcc is replaced with Vout min If R1 R2 then Equation 28 31 reduce to reduces to V s 1 2 Vout or Vcc 2 or Vcc 2 m R NC tVec U1 t Vout TL084 Mcc R1 R2 Figure 5 The circuit diagram for a Schmitt trigger oscillator Since the output of this circuit is a square wave this looks like a step input to the RC network that is connected from Vout to V terminal of the op amp and is given by V t Vf Vi Vf e URC 32 where Vf is the final voltage the capacitor charges to and Vi is the initial voltage on the capacitor at the time the step input occurred Assume R1 R2 and the Vout Vcc and Vout just changes states to Vcc and since Vout has been at Vcc the initial voltage on the capacitor will be Vcc 2 8 8 Vt Vout 2 At this point the capacitor starts charging to Vcc and Equation 32 becomes V t 4Vcc Vcc 2 Vec e URC amp Vcc 3 2 Vcc e VRC 33 The capacitor continues to charge to Vcc until V gt Vt Vcc 2 At this point Vout switches states going to Vcc Setting V t Vcc 2 and solving for t gives the total time T1 it takes the capacitor to charge to Vcc 2 T1 RC 1n 3 1 0086 RC 34 At this point Vout switches back from Vcc to Vcc the capacitor star
51. Vreg 13 or R2 Vout R2 IQ Vreg Rit I 14 If the current IR1 gt gt IQ then the quiescent current IQ can be ignored in Equation 14 and Vout is given by 3 6 R2 Vout Vreg Re 1 15 Since for the 78XX regulators IQ is about 6 milliamps IR1 should be about at least 30 milliamps The goal is not to make IRI too large as this will reduce the efficiency of the regulator circuit T8XX Iin out 5 aln Out E E Vout T Gnd R4 IL C2 IRI undue C1 RL 470yf PE 1k H IQ 470yf M R2 Figure 5 A circuit diagram to make linear voltage regulator adjustable Procedure General Setup 1 Record the model and serial number of the scope power supply multimeter and function generator used in laboratory experiment 2 Download the datasheet for the 78XX regulators This will be needed to obtain the pin out of the regulator When comparing datasheet data values to experimental data use the typical values in the datasheet if given 3 Obtain the pin out for the 2N2222 transistor 4 Make sure that the power supply to the op amp is correctly wired so as not to apply the incorrect polarity to the op amp 5 When measuring any values make sure to measure all inputs as well as the output of the circuit Do not rely on the values indicated on the instruments Always measure all signal values 6 Before turning any power on double check the wiring to make sure that it i
52. X for each decade From steps 14 15 calculate CMRR as a function of frequency From steps 14 15 and 16 plot Acm Ad CMRR as a function of Frequency 18 Decrease the value of R4 by 15 to 20 Adda 10K ohm variable resistor in series with this new value of R4 One side of the variable resistor to R4 and the middle connection to ground See Figure 7 Setting V1 V2 20 volt peak to peak 200 Hz sine wave measure Vout Adjust this variable resistor potentiometer to yield the smallest value for Vout Adjust R4 to best match R2 This is the optimum setting Repeat steps 6 7 9 10 and 11 with this optimum setting for the potentiometer Build a gain of Ad 4 difference amplifier 22 23 Repeat steps 6 7 9 10 and 11 for the difference amplifier of step 21 Build the test circuit shown in Figure 8 with a gain of Ad 4 for the difference amplifier This allows for two voltage sources to be applied to V1 and V2 of the difference amplifier The op amp circuit of U2 inverts V1 adding 180 degree phase shift U1 and U3 are unity gain summers summing V2 and V1 to produce two signals into the difference amplifier Vout U1 V1 V2 36 Vout U3 V1 V2 37 Set V1 to a 0 5 volt peak to peak 200 Hz sine wave Also set V2 to a 0 5 volt peak to peak 20 Hz sine wave Measure and record with oscilloscope the outputs U1 and U2 op amp stages You can also use Channel B of the function generator and change the phase to 180
53. a b Figure 1 The magnitude spectrums for a the ideal lowpass filter and b the ideal highpass filter In a similar way the ideal highpass filter is defined as Ifor o 2 We H o 2 Ofor lt We This ideal filter also has a finite discontinuity Figure 1 b gives the highpass filter magnitude spectrum The ideal lowpass and highpass filters presented above cannot be built using electronic components as these filters would need an infinite number of storage elements such as capacitors and inductors Realistic filters do not have a sharp or zero transition band of passing frequency components to attenuate frequency components Figure 2 shows the three bands associated with a typical filter The pass band is the band where frequency components of the input to the filter essentially remain unchanged The attenuation band is where the frequency components of the input are attenuated 6 3 and the transition band is the band where the filter transitions from passing frequency components to attenuating frequency components Pass Transition Attenuation Band Band Band Frequency Figure 2 The three regions of a filter Figure 3 a gives the magnitude spectrum for a typical lowpass filter This filter passes the frequencies below the cutoff frequency w and attenuates the frequency components above the cutoff frequency As shown in Figure 3 a there is a gradual transition from passing frequency components to attenuating
54. alculations 0 For each data collection step in the procedure there should be either data collected a calculation performed a waveform recorded Please include these in the report 11 Short summary discussing what is observed for each of the steps given in the laboratory experiment 12 Also include what you learned 13 Make sure to include a discussion on how the frequency of the input affects the output of the ideal half wave rectifiers 14 Discuss the difference between the ideal half wave and full wave rectifiers and the non ideal half wave and full wave rectifiers 15 Discuss the effect of filtering the output of a half and full wave rectifier c o0ugours 522 EXPERIMENT 6 Active Filters Goals To introduce the concepts of using an operational amplifier to perform filtering of electrical signals Both the lowpass and highpass filters will be investigated The equations for first order and second order filters will also be given The frequency response of the various filters will be measured and compared with expected results References Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design D A Neamen McGraw Hill 4th Edition 2007 ISBN 978 0 07 252362 1 The following link is to the Tektronix website for the user manual for the DPO 4034B oscilloscope http www2 tek com cmswpt madetails lotr ctZ2M A amp cs mur amp ci 16272 amp 1c EN Equipment Oscilloscope DPO4034B Triple Power supply Signal gener
55. ansition band The rate of attenuation is N 20 dB decade For 0 the response of this filter is unity and at oo the response is zero Similar to the Butterworth lowpass filter the Butterworth highpass filter is defined as 1 HR E N 4 er For 0 the response of this filter is zero and for o oo the response is one 20 dB 20 20 40 7 40 1 10 100 140 1104 1 10 100 140 1 10 Rad Sec Rad Sec a b 20 dB dB 0 Q 1 0 20 20 pus 7 40 1 10 100 140 1104 1 10 100 140 1 10 Rad Sec Rad Sec c d Figure 14 The magnitude spectrum for the second order highpass filter given in Equation 16 for various quality factor values 647 2 2 1 1 0 0 n 0 0 001 0 002 0 003 0 004 s 0 0 001 0 002 0 003 0 004 a b s 2 0 0 EM i 0 0 001 0 002 0 003 0 004 214 0 0 001 0 002 0 003 0 004 c d Figure 15 The step response for the second order highpass filter given in Equation 33 for various quality factor values For a Q 5 b Q 1 c Q 2 and d Q 5 To design a Butterworth filter the locations of the poles are required Most tables that give the Butterworth poles are computed with a normalized cutoff frequency of o 1 Table 1 gives the poles for up to a 7 order filter factored into first and second order terms for a normalized frequency oo 1 The advantage of this table is that a high order filter can be implemented by cascading several second or
56. as a capacitor This capacitor can range in size from about 0 01 microfarad to about 10 microfarad For this lab and the other labs for this course these two capacitors should be 10 microfarad 35 volts available in the lab parts cabinet In addition both of these capacitors should be placed as close as possible to the and power supply pins of the op amp see data sheet for actual pin numbers These capacitors are used to prevent any noise from being coupled into 1 3 the op amp power supply pins and to prevent any positive feedback that may make the op amp oscillate IR2 IR1 R2 R1 Vcc E VER Mr 4 Vin oF eT AG T LE Vout amp 15v SINE le2 A Pd Vcc 15v Figure 2 The schematic for an inverting amplifier The voltage gain for an inverting amplifier is given as Vout R1 Y 7 win R2 4 Equation 4 includes a negative sign This negative sign introduces a 180 phase shift in the output voltage relative to the input voltage Assuming R1 is a 5k ohm resistor and R2 is a 1k ohm resistor and Vin is 1 volt triangle input then Av would be 5 and Vout would be 5volts triangle wave that is 180 out of phase compared to the input as shown in Figure 3 Note how the output signal is 5 times larger than the input signal For the special case when R2 R1 Vout Vin a 180 phase shifted version of the input Vin 1 lv time 45v Vou time 5 Figure 3 The o
57. ator Capacitors available in the laboratory Resistors available in the laboratory minimum filter resistor should be 10kQ Pre laboratory Read this laboratory experiment carefully to become familiar with the background and the procedural steps in this experiment Carefully read each section and become familiar with the equations for each circuit Using the simulation package of your choice in which you are the most familiar with Mulitsim Workbench or LTSpice IV simulate the following filters Simulate using a pulse input of O to 1 volt to the filter and compare one cycle to the equations below First order Filters a Simulate a first order lowpass filter using the circuit given in Figure 4 with oo 10 000 rad sec b Using the AC simulation mode of the simulator obtain the lowpass filter magnitude spectrum from 10 Hz to 10 000 Hz c Determine the attenuation factor in dB Decade from Step b d Apply a 1 volt peak square input with a frequency of 500 Hz Simulate and plot the time response of this filter Use 1 usec rise and fall times or less for 6 1 the pulse generator Simulate a first order highpass filter using the circuit given in Figure 7 with wo 10 000 rad sec Using the AC simulation mode of the simulator obtain the highpass filter magnitude spectrum from 10 Hz to 10 000 Hz Determine the attenuation factor in dB Decade from Step f Apply a 1 volt peak square input with a frequency of 500 Hz Simu
58. b 4 6 0 002 0 004 e 0 0 002 0 004 c d Figure 12 The step response for the second order lowpass filter given in Equation 16 for various quality factor values For a Q2 0 5 b Q 1 c Q 2 and d Q 5 Figure 13 gives the circuit used to implement a buffered version of a second order highpass filter for RI R2 R and Cl C2 C The only difference between this filter and the lowpass version of this filter is that the R s and the C s are swapped The transfer function of this filter is given as K s2 Vout s 2 33 s2 m 002 Q where 1 O RE 34 Ls 3 K 35 Q EX 644 or 1 K 3 7 3 Q 36 and Rb K Rat 1 37 which are the same equations as Equations 20 23 repeated here for clarity R Vcc i f TLO84 2 Vout Vin R Tut Vcc Rb NZ Ra Figure 13 The circuit diagram for a second order highpass with R1 R2 R and C1 C2 C filter The frequency response of this filter can be found by substituting s jo into Equation 16 K H o f Vout Vin o e 38 QIL 02 o2 The magnitude response is found from Equation 24 as 645 K o2 H f Vout o Vin T Q At o Equation 25 reduces to 39 _ Vout o BOO Vin o SISETSS 40 The magnitude of H wo is equal to K Q and the phase is 90 At resonance the gain of the filter increa
59. boratory experiment was generated using LTSpice IV 2 14 EXPERIMENT 3 Linear Voltage Regulators Goals To introduce the concepts of a linear voltage regulator and their use to maintain a regulated voltage output Data collected during this laboratory experiment will be compared to the datasheet for the parts used References Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design D A Neamen McGraw Hill 4th Edition 2007 ISBN 978 0 07 252362 1 Equipment Triple Power supply TLO081 TL 084 family of operational amplifiers 2N2222A NPN transistor Capacitors available in the laboratory Resistors available in the laboratory Multimeter 7805 and 7812 linear three terminal regulators Pre laboratory Read this laboratory experiment carefully to become familiar with the background and the procedural steps in this experiment Carefully read each section and become familiar with the equations for each circuit Using the simulation package of your choice in which you are the most familiar with Mulitsim Workbench or LTSpice IV simulate the linear regulator of Figure 2 a Pick R1 and R2 such that Vout is 3 volts The minimum values for R1 and R2 should be 1000 ohms b Set RL 100 ohms and Vin 6 volts Measure with the simulator Vout c Measure IL and Iin Calculate Pin Pout and Preg d Calculate the Efficiency Pout Pin 100 e Vary RL from 50 to 10k ohms and measure Vout and IL f Plot Vout versus IL g Sett
60. comparator circuit of Figure 5 Figure 7 gives Vout as a function of time for the comparator circuit of Figure 3 During the time Vin gt Vref Vout Vcc else Vout Vcc 7 5 Vin Vref Time Figure 7 Vout as a function of time for the comparator circuit of Figure 3 If the LM393 comparator as shown in Figure 8 is used to implement the comparator circuit given in Figure 3 then Vcc for Vin gt Vref yours n for Vin lt Vref Hb where the output voltage Vout is defined as Va Vcc and Vb 0 The output of the LM393 comparator is an open collector transistor and it needs a pull up resistor typically 2k to 4k The only requirement in picking the value of the pull up resistor is the maximum current for the output transistor can not exceed 10 milliamps Figure 9 gives the output as a function time for the comparator circuit for Figure 3 using the LM393 comparator Vcc arator LM393 R3 l l ae 4 7k Vin da Vout WE U1 bd DU Figure 8 A simple comparator circuit using the LM393 comparator 7 6 Vin Vref Time 0 Time Figure 9 Vout as a function of time for the comparator circuit of Figure 3 using an LM393 comparator Consider the comparator circuit given in Figure 10 Starting with Vcc for Vt gt V Vout cc for Vt gt 12 Vcc for V lt V R1 Vout m VREF C tVcc Figure 10 A comparator circuit with hysteresis Schmit
61. der filters with a first order filter For example if N 6 there will three second order filter stages and no first order stage The steps involved in designing an Nth order Butterworth lowpass filter is as follows 1 Pick the order N of the filter and the desired filter gain Kd the desired gain of the overall filter and cutoff frequency wo 2 Using Table 1 obtain the normalized factored poles wo 1 for the given N 6 18 For N odd there will be an s 1 pole This can be easily implemented with the first order lowpass filter given in Figure 4 Pick C and find R from 45 For each second order section Figure 10 and Equation 16 the K and Q must be found This is done by using the corresponding constant in front of the s term in the second order pole equation This term is equal to oo Q But o is equal to so this term is simply equal to 1 Q Table 1 The factored Poles for a Butterworth Filter N Second order Factored Butterworth filter Normalized Poles wo 1 1 s 1 2 s 1414s 1 3 s 1 s2 s41 4 s2 0 7654s 1 s 1 847s 1 5 s 1 s2 1 618s 1 s2 0 618s 1 6 s2 0 5176s 1 s2 1 4148 1 s 1 9319 7 s 1 s 0 445s 1 s2 1 247s 1 s2 1 8019s 1 Using K 2 3 2 46 3 gt 46 solve for K given Q from step 4 and with Rb K p tl 47 Pick Ra or Rb and then solve Equation 47 for the other resistor Ra
62. dure General Setup 1 Record the model and serial number of the scope power supply multimeter and function generator used in laboratory experiment 2 Download the datasheet for the op amp used This will be needed to obtain its pin out When comparing datasheet data values to experimental data use the typical values in the datasheet if given 142 10 11 Make sure that the power supply to the op amp is correctly wired as not to apply the incorrect polarity to the op amp Initially set Vcc 15 volts and Vcc to 15 volts When measuring any values make sure to measure all inputs as well as the output of the circuit Do not rely on the values indicated on the instruments Always measure all signal values The output impedance of the signal generator is 50 ohms If the generator is connected to a load other than 50 ohms the displayed Amplitude Offset and High Low values will be different than what is selected on the generator Usually a factor of 2 larger Before turning any power on double check the wiring to make sure that it is correct Measure all resistors that are used in the amplifier circuits using the multimeter and record these values Use all measured values to determine experimental results such as gain and current Comparing data means to calculate the percent difference between two values For example theoretical values versus measured values Comparing data graphically means to plot the data on the same p
63. e Change the diode orientations in Figure 13 and repeat Step m Simulate the limiter circuit given in Figure 17a for RF RA 100k R1 20k R2 15k R3 10K and RA 20K Set VRI Vcc and VR2 Vcc Vary Vin from Vcc to Vcc and obtain Vout Compare this result to the plot given in Figure 16 Use at least 10 points to perform the comparison Repeat Step o with but remove RF Discussion Diode Model The diode model used in the laboratory experiment is shown in Figures 1 and 2 When the diode is forward biased so that Vd Vx the forward turn on voltage the diode is on and the current Id flowing in the diode is non zero Figure 2b When Vd Vx the diode current Id is zero and the diode is reversed biased Figure 2c Under this condition no current is flowing in the diode and the diode can be considered an open circuit Figure 1 gives a plot of the diode current as a function of the diode voltage showing the forward biased and reverse biased region Typical values of the forward biased voltage Vx depends on the semiconductor material used for the diode but typically is in the range of 0 2 volts to 0 7 volts 5 2 Half Wave Rectifier Diodes can be used to convert an average voltage AC signal to a DC voltage using the process of rectification Figure 3 a shows a diode connected to a resistor R with a Vin of Id Forward Bias Reverse Bias 0 Vx Vd Figure 1 Id versus Vd for the simplified diode model
64. e 1 A circuit diagram for a phase shift oscillator Figure 2 shows the feedback loop open at point A The goal is to find the output Y as a function of the input X Starting at X the transfer function from X to X1 is Xl s RCs X s RCs41 1 8 2 Since the next stage U2 is identically the same as the fist stage U3 the transfer function from X2 to X1 is X2 s RCs XIs RCs41 2 Figure 2 The phase shift oscillator with its loop feedback open at point A The transfer function for the final stage U1 is given as Y R2 R2Cs ie X28 Ll RCs 1 sC The loop feedback is then given as Y s Xl s XZ s Y s 4 X s X s Xl s X2 s Combine Equations 1 2 and 3 together in Equation 4 gives the total loop feedback transfer function of Y s RCs RCs R2Cs X s RCs 1 RCs 1 RCs 1 5 or We RCS dus RCs y X s RCs 1 3 R RCs 1 6 Substituting jc for s gives Y o R2 RCjo j Xo R RCjo 1 6 8 3 For this circuit to oscillate the feedback must be positive feedback with a magnitude of 1 and a feedback phase of zero degrees Y jo EIS i 68 and YGa ao Are le 0 9 The criteria given in Equations 8 and 9 are known as the Barkhausen criteria Expanding Equation 6 gives Yjo R2 RCje RCop 10 XGo R 1 3 oRC 2 RCjo 3 RCo 2 Since Equation 8 is real and contains no imaginary terms to satisfy this criteria E
65. e 6 The Schmitt trigger oscillator waveforms But Vx is nothing more than the integral of Vout since V1 Vout t t Vx t zh f V1C dt Vx 0 Ek fVout dv e Vx 0 41 0 0 where Vx 0 7 is the initial voltage across the capacitor Vout simply switches between Vcc and Vcc When Vout is switching from Vcc to Vcc this can be modeled as a unit step with an amplitude of v1 t 4 Vcc Substituting this value into Equation 41 gives 8 10 t 1 1 Vx Re J Vecd v ge Veo t Vx 42 0 If R2 2 R1 then Vout switches from Vcc to Vcc when Vx Vcc 2 and Vout switches from Vcc to Vcc when Vx Vcc 2 For the case when Vout switches from Vcc to Vcc the initial voltage across the capacitor Vx 07 Vcc 2 Substituting this value into Equation 42 gives 1 V Vx t RC Vcc t 43 The Vx t now decreases until it reaches a value of Vcc 2 at which point Vout switches to Vcc Setting Vout t Vcc 2 in Equation 43 and solving for t gives the total time T2 for Vout 2 Vcc T2 RC 44 Vout Figure 7 Triangle square wave waveform generator Using Equation 41 and substituting V1 t Vcc and with the initial voltage across the capacitor Vx 07 Vcc 2 gives Vx t a Vec t E 45 Equation 45 describes the case when Vout Vcc At the point Vout switches from Vcc back to Vcc Vx Vcc 2 Substituting this value into Equation 45 and solving for
66. e as that used for a zener diode In addition using and biasing a precision diode is the same as a zener diode The only difference between a precision voltage reference and a zener diode is the voltage across the diode remains fairly constant over a large range of bias current where for a zener diode there is a significant change in voltage across the part as the bias current changes For the LM285 precision voltage reference the voltage across the device has a constant voltage of 1 235 volts and has a typical change of voltage of only 7 millivolts over the current range of 10 microamps to 20 milliamps It has a temperature stability of a typical value of less than 6 millivolt change in voltage over the temperature range of 40 C to 85 C Cathode Anode Figure 14 A schematic diagram for a precision voltage reference Figure 15 shows how to bias a precision voltage reference Assuming the current Il flowing out of the output Vo is zero then I is gvien as I Vcc Vo R 26 where Vo 1 235 volts To bias the LM285 a bias current in the range of 0 5 milliamps to 20 milliamps is chosen Figure 15 A schematic diagram shown how to bias a precision voltage reference Since it was assumed that the current I 0 typically Vout is connected to an op amp buffer to produce a gain so the desired voltage reference can be obtained 514 Figure 16 gives the circuit diagram for a precision voltage reference using the LM285 The final ou
67. e two inputs Vt and V and the one output Vout as shown in Figure 1 Most op amps need two power supplies one with a positive voltage Vcc and one with a negative voltage Vcc D a Vcce gt Vout oU I Vcc Figure 1 A Schematic diagram of a typical op amp There are several important facts about op amps First the output Vout is bounded between the two powers supply voltages Vcc lt Vout lt Vcc 2 If the output voltage is allowed to go to exactly Vcc to Vcc this op amp is referred to as an op amp with a rail to rail output Rewriting Equation 1 gives the following Vout Aod 3 VF V For most common op amps the gain of the op amp Aod is about 106 Since Vout is bound by Equation 2 to be within the power supply values which is typically less than 15 volts by Equation 3 V V is limited to about 15 microvolts Essentially Vt V Finally the last import fact is the current flowing into the positive V input and the negative V input is very small and for most applications can be considered zero I I 0 Since V V andI T 0 this condition is called a virtual short Inverting Amplifier Figure 2 gives the schematic diagram for an inverting amplifier A close look at Figure 2 shows that the op amp power supply contains both Vcc and Vcc which have been set to 15 and 15 volts respectively Also each of the power supply inputs h
68. e width modulator The average voltage output from Figure 2 is then given by Equation 3 as Vin Vavg Ay gt 5 where T K the amplitude of the sawtooth wave at time T and T1 Vin the time when the sawtooth amplitude is equal to Vin The pulse width modulator provides a means of varying the pulse width of a periodic pulse waveform which allows the average voltage to be varied Figure 3 gives a simple switching voltage regulator using an N channel MOSFET and a pulse width modulator The input to the pulse width modulator is a sampled version of Vout generated by the voltage divider composed of R1 and R2 The capacitor C is used to filter the sampled output voltage to obtain its average or DC value As the output voltage increases the pulse width modulator decreases its pulse width and decreases the time that the MOSFET is on This decreases the time that Vin is connected to the output As Vin decreases the pulse width modulator increases its pulse width This increases the time that Vin is connected to Vout The output waveform is the periodic pulse given in Figure 1 with A equal to Vin Typical switching regulators use periodic frequencies in the range of a few kilohertz to a few megahertz 1 T Vin Drain Source Vout RL Pulse Width Modulator Figure 3 A simple switching regulator The main limitation of the simple regulator given in Figure 1 is that Vout is a periodic pulse not a constant DC volta
69. edance load Consider the following circuit of Figure 10 The voltage source has an internal resistance of 1000 ohms and is rated at 12 volts It is desired to use this voltage source to turn on a 12 volt light bulb with an internal resistance of 1000 ohms Using Ohm s Law the current through the light bulb is 12 volts 2000 ohms and the voltage across the light bulb is 6 volts not 12 volts as required to light the light bulb it s a 12 volt light bulb Vcc Voltage Source C1 lt HT C2 E 0 Il me T 15v NT Vec Figure 11 A 12 volt light bulb connected to a 1000 ohm 12 voltage source via a unity gain buffer Figure 11 shows using a unity gain buffer to light the light bulb With this circuit since the current into the op amp is zero the voltage drop across the internal voltage source resistor is 0 and 12 volts appears at the input of the V terminal of the op amp Since this amplifier is a unity gain buffer Vout Vin 12 volts The full 12 volts now appears across the 12 volt light bulb As long as the maximum output current of the op amp is not exceeded the voltage across the light bulb will remain at 12 volts Unlike the circuit of Figure 10 where the voltage across light bulb dropped to 6 volts the unity gain buffer circuit was able to maintain 12 volts across the light bulb Summing Amplifier An application of the inverting amplifier is that of the summing amplifier shown in Figure 12 Given that pl
70. eference voltages going to the two comparators C1 and C2 The capacitor is used to filter any noise that may be present on Vcc to maintain a constant reference voltage on Vt of C1 and V on C2 9 3 GND Vcc WT U1 TRIG DIS Out OUT THRS NE555 Vicc RST CV 3 C1 O1pf SZ a TVcC Thres 6 Reset 4 rm Vcc 2 yee Vec Q e1 U1 rcc Trig 2 TVcc Ra Rb b Figure 3 a The external circuit diagram of the LM555 timer configured as an astable oscillator and b the same circuit showing the internal functional block diagram of the LM555 timer 9 4 Assuming initially Q 1 the transistor Q1 is off and the initial voltage across the capacitor is just slightly greater than 1 3 Vcc Since the Trigger input pin 2 and Threshold pin 6 are tied together Vt lt V of C2 and Vt lt V of Cl the output of both C1 and C2 are 0 The RS FF is in a hold condition maintaining Q The capacitor C starts to charge toward Vcc through Ra and Rb Equation 32 from laboratory experiment 8 gives the voltage across the capacitor as Vpin_2 t Vf Vi Ve VURC 1 where Vf is the final voltage and Vi is the initial voltage across the capacitor Substituting Ra Rb for R Vi 1 3 Vcc and Vf Vcc gives Vpin 2 t 4Vcc 2 3 4 Vcc e tU Ra Rb C 2 Figure 4 shows
71. form Vary Vin from 0 to 10 volts 0 2 4 8 and 10 volts and measure T1 the time Vout Vcc Plot T1 versus Vin Compare Step 29 to Equation 36 with T 0 001 sec and K 10 volts Report Please follow the procedures in this laboratory manual for writing the report for this experiment Include in your report 02 002 SIL Qv eno Ub Es The equipment used model and serial number Laboratory partners Date and time data was taken Your laboratory report should include the goal of the laboratory experiment The procedures The pre laboratory results All calculations for each step All plots generated for each step All comparisons calculations 743 10 For each data collection step in the procedure there should be either data collected a calculation performed a waveform recorded Please include these in the report 11 Short summary discussing what is observed for each of the steps given in the laboratory experiment 12 Also include what you learned 744 EXPERIMENT 8 Oscillators and Waveform Generators Goals To introduce the concepts of using an operational amplifier as an oscillator to produce an output waveform The Schmitt trigger comparator will be used to produce a square wave and a triangle waveform References Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design D A Neamen McGraw Hill 4th Edition 2007 ISBN 978 0 07 252362 1 The following link is to the Tektronix website for the user manual
72. from Acm from Step 6 and Ad from Step 9 Compare step 10 to step 4 Discuss in the laboratory report the result of step 11 Varying the frequency of the function generator from 100 Hz to 100 kHz repeat steps 5 and 6 Use measured values at frequencies of 1X 2X and 5X for each decade Varying the frequency of the function generator from 100 Hz to 100 kHz repeat steps 7 8 and 9 Use measured values at frequencies of 1X 2X and 5X for each decade From steps 13 and 14 calculate CMRR as a function of frequency From steps 13 14 and 15 plot Acm Ad CMRR as a function of Frequency Voltage to Current Converter E 2 9 Design and build the voltage to current converter given in Figure 6 for a conversion factor of 1 milliamp of out for one volt of input Using a load resistance of RL 1k ohms and V2 15 volts measure the voltage across R2 and RL for Vin 1 volt Compute the current in RL and R2 from step 2 Varying the input from 0 to 5 volts repeat steps 2 and 3 Make sure there is at least 5 points measured per integer voltage value Plot IL versus Vin from step 4 Is the curve linear Setting Vin to 2 volts measure IL as a function of V2 with V2 varying from 1 volt to 5 volts Plot IL versus V2 Setting Vin to 2 volts and V2 to 5 volts measure Vin with RL varying from 100 ohms to 2k ohms Use at least 5 different resistor values for RL Plot IL versus RL Report Please follow the procedures in this laboratory man
73. g the multimeter and record these values Use all measured values to determine experimental results such as gain and current Comparing data means to calculate the percent difference between two values For example theoretical values versus measured values Comparing data graphically means to plot the data on the same plot to see how the data overlaps Experimental Data l Build and design the half wave rectifier circuit given in Figure 3 with R 1K and the diodes equal to 1N4148s Set Vin equal to a 200 Hz 10 volt peak to peak sine wave with no DC offset Obtain a plot of Vin and Vout versus time using the oscilloscope Measure the DC voltage with a multimeter and compare this result to Equation 3 Repeat Step 1 for Figure 7a for R 1K and C 470 uf Obtain the peak to peak ripple voltage How does this value compare to Equation 11 What is the DC voltage at the output Vout How does this value compare to Equation 13 Build and design the full wave rectifier circuit given in Figure 5 with R IK and the diodes equal to 1N4148s Set Vin to a 200 Hz 10 volt peak to peak sine wave with no DC offset Obtain a plot of Vin and Vout versus time the oscilloscope Since the output of the full wave rectifier is not isolated from the input special care must be taken Both the ground of the signal generator and the oscilloscope are tied together through electrical ground So attaching the 520 signal generator at the input and a
74. ge The problem is that when the MOSFET turns off Vout goes to zero and the current to the load RL goes to zero What needs to be added to this simple switching regulator is a means of storing energy when the MOSFET is on and delivering this energy to the load RL when the MOSFET is off One device that stores energy in a magnetic field is an inductor Figure 4 shows the modification of the simple switching regulator with the addition of an inductor and a diode This allows current to continue to follow in RL when the MOSFET is OFF When the MOSFET is on Vin appears at the source pin the diode is reversed biased and off and VL appears on the left side of the inductor L1 Ignoring the current flowing in R1 and R2 since this current is usually much smaller than current flowing in RL the effective circuit when the MOSFET is on is an RL circuit as shown in Figure 5 Since the current in an inductor can not change instantaneously the current through the inductor starts to increase at rate of Vin tL IL 2 RL 1 oF 6 and reaching a final value IL Vin RL At the point that MOSFET turns off the diode becomes forward biased allowing current to continue to flow in the inductor in the same direction as when the MOSFET was on The model of the switching regulator when the MOSFET is off is shown in Figure 6 The diode turns on allowing current to flow through the inductor L1 and through the load RL L1 Vout Vin Source aie L
75. goal of the laboratory experiment The procedures The pre laboratory results All calculations for each step All plots oscilloscope waveforms generated for each step All comparisons calculations For each data collection step in the procedure there should be either data collected a calculation performed a waveform recorded Please include these in the report Short summary discussing what is observed for each of the steps given in the laboratory experiment 12 Also include what you learned 844 EXPERIMENT 9 The 555 Timer Goals To introduce the concepts of using the versatile LM555 timer as a monostable pulse generator an astable oscillator and as a pulse width modulator The internal block diagram of the LM555 will also be presented References Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design D A Neamen McGraw Hill 4th Edition 2007 ISBN 978 0 07 252362 1 The following link is to the Tektronix website for the user manual for the DPO 4034B oscilloscope http www 2 tek com cmswpt madetails lotr ct MA amp cs2mur amp ci 16272 amp lc EN Equipment Oscilloscope DPO 4034B Function Generator AFG3022B Triple Power supply Capacitors available in the laboratory Resistors available in the laboratory use a minimum of 1k resistors Multimeter LM555 NE555 Universal Timer Pre laboratory Read this laboratory experiment carefully to become familiar with the background and the procedural steps in t
76. h Vout max and Vcc with Vout min in Equations 22 25 Compare the Equations 22 25 with Step o Using an op amp with Vcc set to 15 volts and Vcc set to 15 volts simulate the comparator circuit of Figure 12 Let R2 10k and R1 Ik Use a 5 volts peak 500 Hz triangle waveform for the input Vin DC offset 0 volts Determine the voltage Vin where Vout switches from Vcc to Vcc Plot Vout as a function of time Determine Vout max and Vout min Replace Vcc with Vout max and Vcc with Vout min in Equations 30 33 Compare the Equations 30 33 with Step v Simulate the pulse width modulator circuit of Figure 14 Use a 0 to 10 volt 1000 Hz sawtooth waveform Vary Vin from 0 to 10 volts 0 1 2 5 8 and 10 volts and measure T1 the time Vout Vcc Plot T1 versus Vin Compare Step bb to Equation 36 with T 0 001 sec and K 10 volts Discussion Voltage comparison is commonly required in electronic circuit design when there is a need to compare two input voltages Figure 1 shows the circuit diagram for a voltage comparator It is the same diagram as an operational amplifier and in many cases an operational amplifier can be used as a voltage comparator When an operation amplifier is used as a comparator care must be taken so that the input does not exceed its common mode input range 4 Vcc r yr Vout vo Vcc I Figure 1 A circuit diagram of a typical
77. hat are commonly used is the 78XX three terminal linear regulator family where XX gives the output voltage of the regulator Both the input and output voltages of these regulators are positive For example a 7805 voltage regulator produces an output voltage 5 volts For negative output voltages the 79XX regulators are available 7805 or 7812 Iin IL m a In Out g Vout IL T Gnd Vin C2 C1 RL EP IQ E 1k 470pf 470pf NS id Figure 3 An example of a three terminal linear voltage regulator There are several parameters that are important when dealing with a linear regulator Iin 2 IL 4 IQ 6 3 4 IQ is the regulator quiescent current and typically is milliamps If the load current is much larger than IQ then Iin IL and IQ can be ignored in the following equations Pin Vin Iin Vin IL IQ 7 Pout Vout IL 8 Preg Pin Pout Vin Vout IL IQ Vin 9 Where Pin is the input power Pout is the output power and Preg is the power dissipated in the regulator The efficiency of a voltage regulator defines the percentage of power that is delivered to the load and is given by Pout Efficiency Pin 100 10 The main objective of a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant voltage over various load currents One parameter of importance is the load regulation parameter This parameter gives the change in Vout as the regulator s outpu
78. he output C2 0 and the output of C1 1 This sets the output of the RS FF to the condition Q 1 The transistor Q1 turns off and Vout goes to 1 starting a new cycle of oscillation The time it takes T2 T1 to discharge the capacitor to 1 3 Vcc is found by substituting this value into Equation 4 for Vpin 2 t and solving for t T1 with t T2 T2 T1 In 2 Rb C 5 The total time period of oscillation T2 is found by adding Equations 3 and 5 together T2 In 2 Ra 2 Rb C 6 The frequency of oscillation which is given by 1 T2 is 1 1 44 f hn eee ee Ae ee oe PR ERI E 7 In 2 Ra 2 Rb C Ra 2 Rb C 0 The duty cycle which is defined as the time the output is low to the total time period is T2 TI Rb USC CT EAE 10096 8 A closer investigation of Equation 8 yields that for a 50 duty cycle Ra would have to be zero which is not possible for the astable oscillator circuit configuration of Figures 3 a and b To build an astable oscillator with a 5096 duty cycle requires the addition of a diode as shown in Figure 5 During charging of capacitor C the diode is on Essentially Rb is in parallel with the on state forward biased resistance of the diode which is typically much smaller than the resistance Rb For the most part this parallel combination can be considered as zero ohms The best diode to use in this configuration is a Schottky diode as this 9 6 diode has a much smaller turn on voltage than a
79. hese simulations compare to Figure 15 Butterworth Filter u V W X Simulate a fifth order lowpass Butterworth filter using the steps described in the laboratory experiment with o 10 000 rad sec and Kd 5 The attenuation factor should be 100 dB Decade Using the AC simulation mode of the simulator obtain the lowpass filter magnitude spectrum from 10 Hz to 10 000 Hz From Step v measure Vout at o wo Apply a 1 volt peak square input with a frequency of 200 Hz Simulate and plot the time response of this filter Use 1 usec rise and fall times or less for the pulse generator 6 2 Discussion Filtering of a signal is an important aspect of electronic signal processing It provides a means of reducing the noise present in a signal and means of removing unwanted interference Filtering of a signal is easily implemented using resistor inductor and capacitor circuits or resistor capacitor and op amp circuits The classification of a filter is based upon which frequency components have been attenuated There are four major types of filters An ideal lowpass filter is defined as one that contains no transition set of frequencies in which the filter goes from passing frequency components to the attenuation of frequency components Ifor o oc H o 1 Ofor o gt oc Figure l a shows a plot of its magnitude spectrum This filter has a finite discontinuity at the cutoff frequency o IH f IH f
80. his experiment Carefully read each section and become familiar with the equations for each circuit Using the simulation package of your choice in which you are the most familiar with Multisim Workbench or LTSpice IV simulate the various oscillator and waveform generator circuits a Using LM555 with Vcc set to 10 volts design and simulate the astable oscillator of Figure 3 a with fo 1000 Hz and with a duty cycle of 33 b Record Vout and the Threshold Pin 7 simulated waveforms Compare these two waveforms to the waveforms given in Figure 4 How are they the same and how are they different What is the frequency and duty cycle for this circuit Add a 1N5818 diode across Rb as shown in Figure 5 e Record Vout and the Threshold Pin 7 simulated waveforms ao 9 1 f Whatis the measured frequency and duty cycle for this circuit g Using LM555 with Vcc set to 10 volts design and simulate the monostable oscillator of Figure 6 with a pulse width of 0 5 millisecond For V3 use a square wave with a 50 duty cycle that goes from 0 to Vcc 2 with a frequency of 200 Hz h Record Vout V3 and the Trigger Pin 2 simulated waveforms How does Vout and Trigger Pin 2 of Step g compare to the plot given in Figure 8 i Using LM555 with Vcc set to 10 volts and Vcc set to 10 volts design and simulate the pulse width modulator of Figure 9 with a pulse width of 0 2 milliseconds This is the same circuit as the monostable circuit but
81. ing RL to Ik ohms vary Vin from 0 to 6 volts h Plot Vout versus Vin i Whatis the dropout voltage for this regulator j Lookup the data sheet for the 7805 and 7812 LM340 voltage regulators k Find the typical output voltages Find the dropout voltage and calculate the minimum allowed input voltage Vin for the 7805 and 7812 voltage regulators m Find the peak output current Find the maximum allowed power dissipation of the regulator at room temperature and with no heatsink assume a TO220 case o Find the load regulation p Find the thermal resistance of the voltage regulator B Discussion Consider the following circuit given in Figure 1 With R1 equal to 100 ohms Vout is equal to 10 9 volts If R1 is changed to 10 ohms then Vout is equal to 6 volts Vout depends on the load resistor R1 In other words the output voltage decreases as the load current the current through R1 increases In many applications it is desirable to have a constant voltage source that is independent of load current For example the Vcc and Vcc input to a typical op amp circuit should remain constant independent of the op amp current Vout a 10 Cm V1 7100 12v V Voltage Source Figure 1 An example of a 12 volt voltage source with an internal resistance of 10 ohms A circuit that maintains a constant output voltage is called a regulator There are two types of voltage regulators that are available Those that w
82. ing the simulation package of your choice in which you are the most familiar with Multisim Workbench or LTSpice IV simulate the linear regulator of Figure 2 a Download the National Semiconductor LM 2576 ADJ Datasheet and become familiar with this part b Design a 5 volt DC output switching regulator with 10 volts DC of input Pick the ratio for R1 and R2 that sets the output to 5 volts DC Figure 2 of datasheet The minimum values for R1 and R2 should be 1000 ohms Compute E T given on page 14 of datasheet Assuming a maximum current of 1 to 1 5 amps find the optimum inductance L given in Figure 7 of datasheet Compute the minimum output capacitance page 14 of datasheet g Assuming a 3 amp maximum load calculate the efficiency of the switching regulator mv Performance Figures Assuming a maximum load current of 3 amps find the power dissipation of the output and the regulator What is the expected dropout voltage at 3 amps Vin Vout What is the expected current limit for the LM2576 regulator Approximately how much does the output voltage change if the input voltage goes from 10 volts to 15 volts assume a junction temperature of 25 Degrees C Discussion Switching regulators are based upon using a pulse where its duty cycle is varied to maintain a constant voltage at its output Consider the periodic pulse waveform given in Figure 1 The average or DC for time varying signal is by i Vavg 7 J vv dt 1
83. into Equation 21 gives Vout 1 R6 i f RA RI RD R5 7e Vd 2 R7 R3 R4 RI R7 R1 1 R6 R4 RL R2 EE j 2UR7TR34R A RI RIAR7 23 Once the common mode gain Acm and the difference mode gain are known the common mode rejection ratio becomes Common Mode Rejection Ratio is found using the same equation that was used for the difference amplifier lAdl CMRR 20 log10 AS 24 For the special case when R6 R5 and R1 R3 and R2 R4 Vout can then be written from Equation 21 as Vout vil RS 1 r RO x _ R7 RI R7RI R6 R2 R2 R6 v2 RS RI RS 1 25 Combining terms gives 2 R6 R2 2 R6 R2 Vout vi 225 1 Ev E 4i E 26 Or R2 2 R6 Vout E R7 V1 V2 27 Equation 27 illustrates that Vout is simply the difference between V1 V2 with a difference gain of R2 2 R6 ad B2 R7 1 28 The last linear op amp circuit that will be discussed in this laboratory experiment is that of the voltage to current converter The input to this circuit is voltage and the output is current Figure 6 gives the schematic diagram for this circuit Given the fact that there is a virtual short between the plus and minus inputs of the op amp and with V Vin the voltage on across R2 is simply Vin V V Vin The current through R2 is then Vin R2 The current I2 through R2 is also the emitter current flowing in the transistor The relationship of the current flowing i
84. ions in Figure 11 and repeat Step 10 12 Build and design the ideal full wave rectifier given in Figure 13 for R1 R3 2k and R2 R4 z R5 Ik Set Vin to a 200 Hz 10 volt peak to peak sine wave with no DC offset Obtain a plot of Vin and Vout versus time using the oscilloscope 13 Change the diode orientations in Figure 13 and repeat Step 12 14 Build and design the precision voltage reference given in Figure 16 for Vout 5 volts Set R1 equal to 1K and set the current to the precision voltage reference diode to 1 ma Measure Vout and V and compare this result to the datasheet for the LM285 and the expected Vout 15 Build and design the limiter circuit given in Figure 18a for RF RA 100k R1 20k R2 15k R3 10K and RA 20K Set Vcc 10V Set VR1 Vcc and VR2 Vcc Using the signal generator input a sawtooth or triangle wave on Vin that varies from Vcc to Vcc and obtain Vout Compare this result to the plot given in Figure 17 16 Repeat Step 15 with but remove RF Report Please follow the procedures in this laboratory manual for writing the report for this experiment Include in your report 1 The equipment used model and serial number 2 Laboratory partners 3 Date and time data were taken 52 Your laboratory report should include the goal of the laboratory experiment The procedures The pre laboratory results All calculations for each step All plots generated for each step All comparisons c
85. late and plot the time response of this filter Use 1 psec rise and fall times or less for the pulse generator Second order Filters 1 m m Simulate a second order lowpass filter using the circuit given in Figure 10 with o 10 000 rad sec with Q 2 Using the AC simulation mode of the simulator obtain the lowpass filter magnitude spectrum from 10 Hz to 10 000 Hz From Step j measure Vout at wo and compare this result to K Q Apply a 1 volt peak square input with a frequency of 500 Hz Simulate and plot the time response of this filter Use 1 usec rise and fall times or less for the pulse generator Measure the peak overshoot and compute the percent overshoot using Equation 31 Repeat Steps 1 and m for Q 0 5 1 and 5 How do these simulations compare to Figure 12 Compare the measured overshoot to the calculated value from Equation 31 Simulate a second order highpass filter using the circuit given in Figure 13 with wo 10 000 rad sec with Q 2 Using the AC simulation mode of the simulator obtain the highpass filter magnitude spectrum from 10 Hz to 10 000 Hz From Step q measure Vout at wo and compare this result to K Q s Apply a 1 volt peak square input with a frequency of 500 Hz Simulate and t plot the time response of this filter Use 1 usec rise and fall times or less for the pulse generator Repeat Step s for Q 0 5 1 and 5 How does t
86. ld the linear regulator circuit of Figure 5 using a 7805 regulator and a 1000 ohm resistor for RL Take note of the polarity of the two electrolytic capacitors Double check your wiring 3 Vary the input voltage between 0 volts and 15 volts and measure Vout Iout and Iin 4 Plot Vout as a function of Vin 5 Determine the dropout voltage for this regulator and compare this measured value to the value given in the datasheet 6 Plot Iout and Iin as a function of Vin in Step 3 7 Compute Pin and Pout as a function Vin 8 From step 7 plot the output efficiency Pout Pin as a function of Vin once the output voltage becomes constant Report Please follow the procedures in this laboratory manual for writing the report for this experiment Include in your report c9 u9UuPRUPMC 12 13 14 15 16 The equipment used model and serial number Laboratory partners Date and time data were taken The goal of the laboratory experiment The procedures The pre laboratory results All calculations for each step All plots generated for each step All comparisons calculations For each data collection step in the procedure there should be either data collected a calculation performed or a waveform recorded Please include these in the report Short summary discussing what is observed for each of the steps given in the laboratory experiment Also include what you learned Make sure to include the measured dropout
87. lot to see how the data overlaps Inverting Amplifier l gt 11 12 13 14 Using the parts kit in the lab build an inverting amplifier with a gain Av of 3 Use resistor values as small as possible but greater than 1k ohms Set Vcc 15 volts and Vcc 15 volts Measure all resistor values Apply a 1 volt DC input to this circuit and measure both the input and output using the multimeter Compute the experimental gain Vout Vin and compare it with the expected theoretical Gain for Av R1 R2 using the measured values for R1 and R2 Compute the current through R1 and R2 from the measured resistances and the measure voltages Vin V V and Vout Compare the currents in R1 and R2 from step 5 Repeat steps 4 and 5 for Vin 0 1 5 2 and 3 volts and Vin 1 2 and 3 volts Generate a plot of Vout versus Vin from steps 4 and 8 From the plot given in step 9 determine the maximum and minimum Vout obtainable Compare these two values of Step 10 to the values given in the datasheet from the Maximum Peak Output Voltage versus Supply Voltage Apply a 2 volt peak to peak 200 hertz sine wave to the input and record from the oscilloscope the input and output waveforms Compare the phase between the input and output waveforms Repeat steps 12 13 for a gain Av 10 for the inverting amplifier Use resistor values as small as possible but greater than 1k ohms 143 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
88. lt 0 21 For Vin gt 0 V2 is simply equal to the inverted version of Vin V2 Vin and Equation 20 reduces to V3 Vin 2 Vin Vin for Vin gt 0 22 Equations 21 and 22 can be combined and be written as V3 I Vin 23 Equation 23 is nothing more the inverted version of the full wave rectifier equation in Equation 7 for the ideal rectifier case of Vx 0 Figure 12 c Inverting Equation 23 gives Vout Vin 24 and is shown in Figure 12 d Inverting Equation 20 gives Vout directly as V3z Vin 2 V2 25 A closer look at Equation 25 shows that this equation is nothing more than a summing amplifier with gains of 1 and 2 respectively Figure 13 shows the circuit diagram for a full wave rectifier using the ideal half wave rectifier and a two input summing amplifier with gains of 1 and 2 respectively 512 A inr A A Time 0 Time a b 2 Els gt ae a eee lt 2 2 gt mE pe gt Time Time c d Figure 12 a The input signal b the inverted half wave rectified signal c the signal due to Equation 20 and the final output Vout Figure 13 An ideal full wave rectifier 543 The Precision Voltage Reference Many applications require a precision constant DC voltage that does not vary with temperature and is very accurate Figure 14 shows a schematic diagram for a LM285 a precision voltage reference The schematic diagram is the sam
89. ly still needs to be implemented as shown in the previous schematics including the 2 bypass capacitors Also the use of input voltage sources as shown in the previous schematics are drawn using a simple reference as V1 V2 etc instead of the total symbol for a voltage source Again this is done to make reading the schematic easier Op amps driving capacitance loads Op amps do not like large capacitance load at the output Vout This tends to make them unstable and having the possibility of the amplifier circuit oscillating This typically occurs when an op amp amplifier circuit tries to drive long cables such as shielded cables These cables tend to have a large capacitance per foot which essentially connects a large capacitance directly to the output of the op amp amplifier circuit Figure 13 shows a slight modification of the non inverting amplifier circuit that allows this amplifier to drive a large capacitance load The resistor R place in series with the op amp output Vout isolates the capacitance load of the capacitor This resistor does not affect the voltage gain of this circuit Since Vt V the amplifier circuit will adjust its output so that the virtual short is maintained and Equations 9 and 10 are still valid Typical values for this resistor is in the range of 50 to 1k ohms Figure 13 A schematic for a non inverting amplifier adding a series resistor at the output of the op amp for to drive a capacitance load Proce
90. mewhere above 2 R1 Make sure to run the simulation for a long enough time e From the output waveform determine the frequency of oscillation and the peak to peak value f Increase R2 to 8 R1 and repeat step e Discus the difference observed in between steps e and f g Using an op amp with Vcc set to 15 volts and Vcc set to 15 volts design and simulate the Schmitt trigger oscillator circuit of Figure 5 Set fo 1000 Hz Make sure to run the simulation for a long enough time h Obtain waveforms for Vout V and V Determine the frequency of oscillation and the peak to peak value of Vout i Using an op amp with Vcc set to 15 volts and Vcc set to 15 volts design and simulate the triangle square wave waveform generator circuit of Figure 7 Set fo 1000 Hz Make sure to run the simulation for a long enough time j Obtain waveforms for Vout and Vx Determine the frequency of oscillation and the peak to peak value of Vout Discussion Oscillators and waveform generators are commonly used to generate sine wave triangle wave and square wave signals used as input sources to various types of electronic circuits Figure 1 shows the circuit diagram for a Phase Shift Oscillator Depending on R2 this oscillator can produce either a sine wave or square wave output To analyze this circuit the feedback loop is opened and its transfer function is found from its input all the way back to its output Figur
91. mulated results and actual results Include the comparison of the measure percent overshoot with Equation 31 Include all time plots Include all frequency plots Include the designs steps used to design the 5 order Butterworth filter List all resistor and capacitor values used in a table How are the time and frequency domain signals related 623 EXPERIMENT 7 Voltage Comparators and Schmitt Triggers Goals To introduce the concepts of using an operational amplifier as a voltage comparator The theory of voltage comparator will be presented along with the design of several comparator circuits The Schmitt trigger comparator will be presented References Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design D A Neamen McGraw Hill 4th Edition 2007 ISBN 978 0 07 252362 1 The following link is to the Tektronix website for the user manual for the DPO 4034B oscilloscope http www 2 tek com cmswpt madetails lotr ct MA amp cs2mur amp ci 16272 amp lc EN Equipment Oscilloscope DPO 4034B Function Generator AFG3022B Triple Power supply Capacitors available in the laboratory Resistors available in the laboratory Multimeter TL084 Operational Amplifier LM393 Comparator Pre laboratory ao Read this laboratory experiment carefully to become familiar with the background and the procedural steps in this experiment Carefully read each section and become familiar with the equations for each circuit Using
92. n a transistor between the base emitter and collector are Ic p Ib 29 Ie Ic Ib B 1 Ib 30 and Pag Ic Del 31 where p is the current gain of the transistor Vin iva Figure 6 The schematic diagram for a voltage to current converter Since Ie I2 in Figure 6 then Ic is given by k Bel D 32 but I2 Vin R2 p Vin keno c 33 The collector current is equal to the input voltage Vin divided by R2 If p is large on the order of 100 then Bens pel Ov and Equation 33 then reduces to Vin k L 35 The output IL is simply Ic the collector current The output current depends only on the input voltage and R2 provided that the voltage across the resistor is less V2 VCE SAT the saturation voltage VCE SAT is the minimum voltage that exist across the collector to the emitter The second criteria is that voltage across R2 must be less than the maximum output voltage of the op amp Vout MAX Vbe Ib 100 Typically Ib typically about 100x smaller than Ic is very small and the maximum voltage across R2 must be less than Vout MAX Vbe The 100 ohm resistor R1 between the base and the output of the op amp is used to isolate the base to emitter capacitance from appear right at the output of the op amp See Laboratory experiment 1 Procedure General Setup 1 Record the model and serial number of the scope power supply multimeter and function generator used in
93. nd Design D A Neamen McGraw Hill 4th Edition 2007 ISBN 978 0 07 252362 1 The following link is to the Tektronix website for the user manual for the DPO 4034B oscilloscope and for the AFG3022B Function generator Oscilloscope http www2 tek com cmswpt madetails lotr ct MA amp cs mur amp ci 16272 amp 1c EN Equipment Oscilloscope DPO 4034B Triple Power supply Capacitors available in the laboratory Resistors available in the laboratory Multimeter 1N4148 diodes Electrolytic Capacitors 470 uf at 15 volts LM 285 precision voltage reference Pre laboratory Read this laboratory experiment carefully to become familiar with the background and the procedural steps in this experiment Carefully read each section and become familiar with the equations for each circuit Use the simulation package of your choice in which you are the most familiar with Mulitsim Workbench or LTSpice IV a Download the National Semiconductor LM285 Datasheet and become familiar with this part b Simulate the half wave rectifier circuit given in Figure 3 with R 1K and the diodes equal to 1N4148s Set Vin equal to a 200 Hz 5 volt peak sine wave with no DC offset Obtain a plot of Vin and Vout versus time c Repeat Step b for Vin equal to a 200 Hz 10 volt peak sine wave with no DC offset 5 1 p Simulate the full wave rectifier circuit given in Figure 5 with R 1K and the diodes equal to 1N4148s Set Vin to a 200 Hz 5 volt peak sine
94. ne experimental results such as gain and current 6 Comparing data means to calculate the percent difference between two values For example theoretical values versus measured values 7 Comparing data graphically means to plot the data on the same plot to see how the data overlaps The LM555 Universal Timer Circuits 1 Using an LM555 timer with Vcc set to 10 volts design and build the astable oscillator of Figure 3 a with fo 1000 Hz and with a duty cycle of 33 as defined in Equation 8 Measure and record with an oscilloscope Vout and the threshold input pin 7 Compare these two waveforms to the waveforms given in Figure 4 How are they same and how are they different What is the measured frequency and duty cycle for this circuit Compute the percentage difference between the measured and original design 9 11 requirements for the frequency and the duty cycle Discuss the differences in the laboratory report What is the value on the threshold input pin 7 when Vout changes states 6 Setting the oscilloscope to AC coupling and increasing the vertical sensitivity of the oscilloscope measure and record the voltage at Vcc Pin 8 Discuss what you observe in the laboratory report 7 Now connect at least a lOpf capacitor between Vcc Pin 8 and ground and repeat Step 6 Discuss what you observe in the laboratory report Leave this capacitor connected between Vcc and ground for the rest of the laboratory experime
95. near regulator is Preg Iin Vreg 8 But Iin IL IQ 9 where IQ is the quiescent current of the regulator This is the current needed by the regulator to power its internal electronics Under most conditions IQ IL and Iin IL 10 The power dissipated in the regulator is Preg lin Vreg 11 and the total input power Pin Vin lin Vin IL 12 Pout is simply Pout Vout IL 13 The efficiency is defined as Efficiency Pout Pin 100 14 Substituting Equations 12 and 13 in Equation 14 gives Efficiency Vout Vin 100 15 Just having Vin gt Vout The efficiency of the linear regulator circuit is less than 100 Typical efficiencies for linear regulator are bellow 50 For switching regulators the main loss of power is the power dissipated in the MOSFET But the MOSFET is either full on or full off When the MOSFET is off there is no power dissipated in the MOSFET but when the MOSFET is on the power dissipated in the MOSFET is PMOSFET IL2 Rds 16 where Rds is the drain to source on resistance of the MOSFET For a power MOSFET Rds on is on the order of a few milliohms Such a small value produces very small power dissipation in the MOSFET allowing for very high efficiencies for the switching regulator Efficiencies of 80 to 90 are very common in switching regulators To reiterate the frequency of switching regulators runs anywhere from a few kilohertz to a few megahertz This allo
96. nt 8 Adda IN4148 diode across Rb as shown in Figure 5 9 Measure and record with an oscilloscope Vout and the threshold input pin 7 10 What is the measured frequency and duty cycle for this circuit 11 How did adding the diode change the frequency and duty cycle How does the measured frequency compare to the values calculated from Equations 12 and 13 12 Using an LM555 timer with Vcc set to 10 volts design and build the monostable oscillator of Figure 6 with fo 2 1000 Hz and with a pulse width of 0 5 millisecond For V3 use a square wave with a 5096 duty cycle that goes from 0 to Vcc 2 with a frequency of 200 Hz 13 Measure and record with an oscilloscope Vout V3 and the trigger input pin 2 14 How does Vout and the trigger input of Step 14 compare to the plot given in Figure 8 15 Measure the actual pulse width of Vout and compare this result to Equation 15 16 Using an LM555 timer with Vcc set to 10 volts and Vcc set to 10 volts design and build the pulse width modulator of Figure 9 with a pulse width of 0 2 milliseconds This is the same circuit as the monostable circuit but with the addition of a 2X non inverting amplifier and an additional signal source Vg 17 Set V3 to 0 to Vcc 2 square wave with a 5096 duty cycle and a frequency of 2000 Hz 18 Set Vg 6 67 volts DC and measure Tp Compare this result to what is expected from Equation 16 19 Varying Vg from 0 5 to 4 volts 0 5 1 5 3 5 and
97. ny power Select RL to be 500 ohms Vary the input voltage Vin between 0 and 15 volts and measure Vout Iout and Iin Plot the output voltage Vout as a function of Vin What is the dropout voltage for this regulator Compare the dropout value in step 7 to the expected value from the datasheet Plot the output current Iout as a function of Vin 10 Plot the input current Iin as a function of Vin 11 Calculate Pin and Pout from steps 6 9 and 10 12 For step 11 plot the output efficiency Pout Pin as a function of Vin once the output voltage becomes constant How does this value compare to the expected value 13 Setting Vin to 10 volts and varying the RL between 100 and 10000 ohms measure Vout Iout and Iin as a function of RL Use at least 5 different resistor values Do not forget to measure the actual resistance of these resistors 14 Plot Vout as a function of RL 15 Plot the output current Iout as a function of RL 16 Plot the input current Iin as a function of RL 17 Calculate Pin and Pout from steps 14 15 and 16 18 For step 17 plot the output efficiency Pout Pin as a function of RL 19 For step 14 calculate the load regulation 20 Measure with a scope the voltage on both sides of the inductor for Vin 10v and RL 500 ohms Discuss your findings in the lab report CA o xU SES oo Report Please follow the procedures in this laboratory manual for writing the report for this experiment Include in you
98. o flows through the resistor producing a non zero voltage at Vout The op amp will try to make V V virtual short maintaining a closed loop configuration Since V Vin and Vt V V Vout Vin The output Vout is nothing more than the input for Vin gt 0 Equation 16 give the output Vout Vout Vin for Vin gt 0 16 Vout 0 for Vin lt 0 If Vin is a sine wave as given by Equation 1 then Vout is the same as Figure 6 except the peak output voltage is equal to A not A Vx The forward bias diode voltage has been eliminated To maintain a closed loop condition and to maintain that the diode is on the op amp s output V Vx or the op amp s output Vin Vx Changing the diode direction changes the polarity of the output producing an output when Vin is negative 5 9 Vout 20 for Vin gt 0 17 Vout Vin for Vin lt 0 Figure 10 gives an inverting ideal half wave rectifier configuration To maintain V Vt 0 the diode must be forward biased and this occurs when the op amp s output is greater than zero For the op amp s output to be greater than zero Vin must be less than zero If the feedback loop is closed since the diode is on the Vout is 2 Vou Vin for Vin 0 18 IR t RI Equation 18 is nothing more than the output equation for an inverting amplifier given an input Vin For Vin gt 0 the op amp s output is negative at its most negative value and the diode is reversed biased and off Since
99. oduces a zero average value Repeating the process for Vout gives T 2 Vavg 2i f A Vx sin ot dt 5 0 The integration is now over half the period since Vout is zero for half the period Performing the integration in given in Equation 5 yields A V Vavg ar 6 Full Wave Rectifier The main limitation of the half wave rectifier is that its output is zero for half of the period Figures 5 a and b give circuit diagram of a full wave rectifier using a bridge configuration A full wave rectifier allows current to flow during both parts of the input sine wave input b Figure 5 A full wave rectifier circuit diagram a For Vin gt 2 Vx and b Vin 2 Vx 5 5 Assuming Vx is the same for all of the diodes when Vin gt 2 Vx D2 and D4 are forward biased and D1 and D3 are reverse biased Current then flows from Vin A through D2 through R and then through D4 and back to Vin B Figure 5 a Again when Vin lt 2 Vx but in the opposite polarity D1 and D3 are forward biased and D2 and D4 are reverse biased Under this condition current flows from Vin B through D3 and then through R and D1 and back to Vin A Figure 5 b Under both conditions for Vin gt 2 Vx and Vin lt 2 Vx the current flowing through the resistor R is in the same direction Even though Vin changes polarity the voltage across R Vout 2 I R remained the same Figure 6 gives Vin and Vout as a function of time Vout
100. or Rb Pick C and solve for R using 48 Since K and Q are dependent compute the actual Ka of total gain implemented for all stages The total actual gain is implemented in the design is given by 6 19 10 11 Ka Kl K2 K3 K4 49 where K1 K2 K3 etc are the actual gains used in each of the first and second order stages as given by Equation 37 If the actual implemented gain Ka Kd the original desired gain then an additional gain stage as shown in Figure 16 is required with a gain of Kd Ry Keski kil iu 50 Pick Rx or Ry and solve for the other resistor Mcc nu TLO84 Vout Vin tU a Mcc a Ry R Rx Figure 16 A non inverting amplifier with a gain of Kg If the original desired gain Kd is less than the actual implemented gain Ka then a buffered voltage divider network as shown in Figure 17 will be needed to reduce the total gain Kd Rx K8 Ka Rx 4 Ry D Pick Rx or Ry and solve for the other resistor The design is now complete To design a highpass Butterworth filter all of the steps are identically the same as for the lowpass filter except the R s and C s are interchanged and Figure 7 applies for the first order highpass filter and Figure 13 applies for the second order highpass filter 620 Vec TL084 Ry Vout Vin U1 or i Vcc Figure 17 A buffered voltage divider Procedure General Setup 1 2
101. ork at a DC or constant operation point known as linear regulators and those that are based upon varying a duty cycle of a pulse known as a switching regulator This laboratory experiment will focus on linear regulators Switching regulators will be discussed in a later laboratory experiment Figure 2 gives the circuit diagram for a linear regulator This regulator uses a 2N2222 transistor and an op amp to perform the output regulation It is based upon the requirement that the op amp will try to adjust its output so as to keep its inputs V and V equal The voltage at the Vt terminal is R4 F 2At Vt Vcc R34 Ra 1 3 2 Assuming Vcc 15v and Vcc 15v then V 1 485 volts The op amp will adjusts its output voltage so that V terminal is the same as Vt Since the output from the regulator Vout is equal to voltage output of the opamp Vbe the output of the regulator also changes Given that the V terminal is related to Vout as R2 then setting V V gives re A URL 2 vevot RIER ORI RT 3 Solving for Vout R1 R2 R4 Vout Vcc R2 R34R4 4 e 2N2222 Vout Vin Tout C1 RL E 1k ATOyf Ww Figure 2 An example of a linear regulator For Vcc 15 volts R3 9 1K and R4 1k Vout becomes R1 R2 Vout 1 485v R2 5 From Equation 5 Vout does not depend on the load current as was the case for the circuit given in Figure 1 Here s how the regulator in Figure 2 maintains a cons
102. p with Vcc set to 15 volts and Vcc set to 15 volts design and build the phase shift oscillator circuit of Figure 1 Be certain to include bypass capacitors at the two power supplies of value 100uF each Set oo 5 773 rad sec Use a resistor box for R2 Adjust R2 until oscillation occurs somewhere above 8 R Measure this value of R2 and include it in the laboratory report From the output waveform determine the frequency of oscillation and the peak to peak value Obtain oscilloscope waveforms of Vout as a function of time Increase R2 to about 15 R and repeat step 2 Discuss the difference observed in between steps 2 and 3 Using an op amp with Vcc set to 15 volts and Vcc set to 15 volts design and build the Wien bridge oscillator circuit of Figure 3 Be certain to include bypass capacitors at the two power supplies of value 100uF each Set oo 10 000 rad sec Use a resistor box for R2 Adjust R2 until oscillation occurs somewhere above 2 R1 Measure this value of R2 and include it in the laboratory report From the output waveform determine the frequency of oscillation and the peak to peak value Obtain oscilloscope waveforms of Vout as a function of time Increase R2 to 8 R1 and repeat step 5 Discuss the difference observed in between steps 5 and 6 Using an op amp with Vcc set to 15 volts and Vcc set to 15 volts design and build the Schmitt trigger oscillator circuit of Figure 5 Be certain to include b
103. pends on the size of the signal on Vout is broken into two categories of small signal and large signal is the same as for an inverting amplifier and is given by Equations 6 and 7 These are the two equations that give the 3dB frequency the frequency in which the magnitude of the voltage gain is reduced by 0 707 from its value given in Equation 9 The actual bandwidth of a non inverting amplifier is then the smaller of Equations 6 and 7 1 7 Figure 7 illustrates the effect of a finite slew rate on a square wave input for a non inverting amplifier with a gain of 5 Like the inverting amplifier the maximum voltage swing that can be achieved at the output depends on the maximum output current that can be delivered by the op amp Vin lv time lv 5v Slew Rate Limit 5v Figure 7 Vout for a square wave input showing the affect of slew rate limit for a non inverting amplifier with a gain of 5 R2 R1 Vcc ci R R aL Vos Ut Vout C SER EF ALL 3 fel S SINE iiis Figure 8 shows VOS place in series with the input signal Vin Consider the non inverting amplifier of Figure 5 According to Equation 9 when Vin 0 volts Vout should also be zero volts But for a real op amp this is not the case Vout is non zero This non zero output voltage is the result of mis matches in the internal amplifiers of the op amp Given this non zero output voltage Vx then it s effectivel
104. quation 10 must also be real This occurs when 1 3 RC 2 0 11 Solving Equation 11 for o gives nets 12 o BRC 00 This is the frequency of oscillation and will be called oo At wo Equation 10 reduces to Y j o R2 RCjeo RCoop _ 13 X oo R RQGjoo 3 RCoo but by Equation 12 Y joo R2 1 51 3 R21 14 X oo R 4133 13 R 8 Before Equation 14 can be solved another look at the Barkhausen criteria is needed The Barkhausen criteria state that a magnitude of 1 and 0 of phase are required for oscillation This is another way of stating that 8 4 Y j o Y oo _ x eo vigo Xie 1 Ziea and are Hoo 0 15 Substituting Equation 15 into Equation 14 and solving for R2 gives R228 R 16 Equation 16 defines the minimum value that R2 can be to obtain oscillation based on ideal conditions Equation 16 is for the ideal case assuming an ideal op amp Typically R2 is selected such that R2 set to be slightly greater than 8 R to guarantee oscillation R2 is usually implemented using a variable resistor and is increased in value to the point where oscillation begins Equations 12 and 16 are the two design equations that are needed to design and build a phase shift oscillator Usually C is chosen and Equation 12 is used to find R Then Equation 16 is used to find the minimum value for R2 Another common oscillator is the Wien Bridge Oscillator shown in Figure 3 which can be used to gene
105. quency oo the magnitude in dB is equal to 3dB Degree H lin dB 3 dB Arg H o 50 4 45 q 5 l l l 1 10 100 0 110 1 104 1 10 100 O 110 1104 Rad Sec Rad Sec Figure 7 b The magnitude and phase spectrums for a first order highpass R C filter Below the cutoff frequency the frequency components are attenuated at a rate of 20dB per decade Figure 7 b Above the cutoff frequency wo the response of the filter is one and these frequency components remain unchanged The response to a step input can be found by taking the inverse Laplace transform of E A 1 Oo 0 Vout s Ril Elis 14 1 1 00 00 with the Laplace transform of a unit step u t equal to 1 s and is given as Vout t eURC wt 15 6 8 A plot of Equation 15 is given in Figure 8 1 0 5 T 0 Time 0 Figure 8 The step response to a first order highpass R C filter Second Order Filters Figure 9 shows the circuit used to implement a buffered version of a second order lowpass filter This circuit uses both positive and negative feed back to achieve a second order system The transfer function of this filter is given as Vout K 9o E ELEC REM SUL AMEN 16 Vin s 2 90 2 S FS O0 Q where the cutoff frequency o 3 dB point is given by Du 17 SO T OTCRIR VEO the gain K by Rb K Pat ly 18 and the Quality factor Q by R2C2 RI C2 RECD 2 os a Re eu PUSE F c VE 6 9
106. r report Ee SO OOS OV ON RR OUS DOES The equipment used model and serial number Laboratory partners Date and time data were taken Your laboratory report should include the goal of the laboratory experiment The procedures The pre laboratory results All calculations for each step All plots generated for each step All comparisons calculations For each data collection step in the procedure there should be either data collected a calculation performed a waveform recorded Please include these in the report Short summary discussing what is observed for each of the steps given in the laboratory experiment 12 Also include what you learned 13 Make sure to include the measured dropout voltage as well as the dropout voltage from the datasheet 14 Discuss the efficiency of this switching regulator and why is efficiency an important parameter 15 Is the curve linear for IL versus Vin 16 Where does the power dissipated in the regulator go 440 EXPERIMENT 5 Precision Diodes and Applications Goals To introduce the concepts of using diodes as rectifiers and limiters The concepts of the ideal diode designed from diodes and op amps circuits will also be discussed Finally diode limiter circuits will be presented Data collected during this laboratory experiment will be compared to the theoretical Equations presented in this laboratory experiment References Microelectronics Circuit Analysis a
107. r second and is 1 5 also given in the op amp data sheet Figure 4 illustrates the effect of a finite slew rate on a square wave input for an inverting amplifier with a gain of 5 Also in Equation 7 Vin peak is the maximum peak input voltage Equation 6 best describes the bandwidth of the inverting amplifier when the output voltage swing is small and Equation 7 best describes the bandwidth when the output voltage swing is large It should be noted that in the denominator of Equation 7 that S 1 Vin peak 8 is nothing more than the peak output voltage The last item of interest for the inverting amplifier is the maximum voltage swing that can be achieved by the op amp For no load on the op amp the op amp maximum and minimum voltage swing is given by its datasheet As mentioned before if the op amp s maximum and minimum voltage swing are equal to Vcc to Vcc then this op amp is referred to as a rail to rail output op amp Another factor that limits the maximum output voltage swing is the amount of current that the op amp output can deliver Usually as the load current increases the maximum output voltage swing decreases This again is usually given in the op amp s datasheet In fact most op amps have a maximum output current limit that is set so as to protect the op amp should its output be accidentally shorted to ground Most op amps have internal projection But what will destroy an op amp is the accidentally applying the
108. rate sine or square waves depending on the gain The same approach will be used to analyze this oscillator that was used for the phase shift oscillator Figure 4 shows Wien bridge with the loop feedback opened R1 R2 E u1 l 2 a Vout N Figure 3 The Wien bridge oscillator Point Y can be written in terms of X1 as Ys R2 xig g T 17 and X1 in terms of X as 8 5 R X1 s RCs 1 2 RCs 18 X R l RCs RCs 2 3RCs 1 RCs 1 Cs R1 R2 Vout x TI 2 X Figure 4 The Wien bridge oscillator with a loop feedback opened at A Combining Equations 17 and 18 gives the transfer function of the loop feedback as xou RCs 2 4 _ _ 19 X s ARI RCs 2 3RCs 1 12 Substituting jo for s gives Y jo Rt RCjo Re RCjo i XGo Rl RCjo 2 3RCjo 1 R1 1 RCo 3RCjo 20 Since Equation 20 must be real with no imaginary terms to satisfy Equations 8 and 9 the Barkhausen criteria 1 RCw 2 0 21 or O gc 00 22 8 6 where o is the frequency of oscillation Substituting o into Equation 20 gives Xl o0 3 R1 Since to satisfy the Barkhausen criteria the phase of Equation must be 0 and the magnitude is 1 or Y oo der 1 24 Sta I 23 w Solving for R2 gives R2 2 R1 25 Equation 25 defines the minimum value that R2 can be to obtain oscillation based on ideal
109. regular diode Since the parallel combination of Rb and the forward biased diode on resistance is approximately zero ohms the capacitor only charges through resistor Ra yielding a charge time for T1 of Tl In Ra C 9 When the capacitor is discharging the diode is on and the capacitor discharges through Rb as described by equation 4 yielding a discharge time of T2 T1 2In 2 Rb C 10 The total period of oscillation is then given by adding Equations 9 and 10 together T2 T1 2 In Ra Rb C 11 and the frequency of oscillation as In 2 Ra Rb C Ra Rb C The duty cycle is then given by T2 TI Rb D T5 Ra Rp 10076 13 If Ra Rb then the duty cycle reduces to 50 Vcc GND vec Ra N7 U1 s TRIG DIS R Out OUT THRS x MSS NE555 E Vcc RST CV C1 le xA O1uf Ba Figure 5 An astable oscillator using the LM555 timer with a 5096 duty cycle 9 7 The LM555 timer can also be configured as a monostable oscillator generating a single pulse of a given pulse width when triggered Figure 6 shows the LM555 timer in a monostable configuration Ra and C determine the pulse width R1 R2 Cl DI and D2 form an input network to trigger the LM555 timer V3 is assumed to be a pulse input in the range of 0 to Vcc 2 Diodes D1 and D2 are used to protect pin 2 of the LM555 timer D1 turns on when the trigger input exceeds Vcc Vd
110. rt co MO Uo cq ON UA ductae rl The equipment used model and serial number Laboratory partners Date and time data were taken Your laboratory report should include the goal of the laboratory experiment The procedures All calculations for each step All plots generated for each step All comparisons calculations All waveforms obtained in each step 0 For each data collection step in the procedure there should be either data collected a calculation performed or a waveform recorded Please include these in the report 11 Short summary discussing what is observed for each of the steps given in the laboratory experiment 145 12 Also include what you learned Note All schematics Circuit diagrams for this laboratory experiment were generated using LTSpice IV 146 EXPERIMENT 2 More Linear Operational Amplifier Applications Goals To introduce the concepts of an operational amplifier op amp used as a difference amplifier an instrumentation amplifier and a voltage to current converter Data collected during this laboratory experiment will be compared to the theoretical equations for the appropriate circuits Additionally an application for the difference amplifier will be presented References Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design D A Neamen McGraw Hill 4th Edition 2007 ISBN 978 0 07 252362 1 Equipment Oscilloscope Tektronix DPO 4034B Mixed Signal Function Generator AFG3022B
111. s correct 7 Measure all resistors that are used in the amplifier circuits using the multimeter and record these values 8 Use all measured values to determine experimental results such as gain and current 9 Comparing data means to calculate the percent difference between two values For example theoretical values versus measured values 10 Comparing data graphically means to plot the data on the same plot to see how the data overlaps 3 7 Discrete linear regulator l 2 13 14 Build the linear regulator of Figure 2 Calculate the resistors R1 and R2 required to produce an output voltage of 3 volts for the circuit of Part 1 The minimum values for R1 and R2 should be 1000 ohms Set Vcc 15 volts and Vcc to 15 volts Build this linear circuit Part 1 using a 1000 ohm resistor for RL Take note of the polarity of the two electrolytic capacitors Double check your wiring Vary the input voltage Vin between 0 and 6 volts and measure Vout Iout and Iin Plot the output voltage Vout as a function of Vin What is the dropout voltage for this regulator Plot the output current Iout as a function of Vin Plot the input current lin as a function of Vin Calculate Pin and Pout from steps 6 7 8 and 9 For step 5 plot the output efficiency Pout Pin as a function of Vin once the output voltage becomes constant Keeping Vin at 6 volts and varying the RL between 100 and 10000 ohms and measure Vout Iout
112. sed by the quality factor Q This is the same gain factor as for the second order lowpass filter but the difference is the phase is 90 for the high pass and 90 for the lowpass filter Figure 14 gives the highpass filter response for various quality factors values with the value of K set equal to one for all cases Applying a step input of u t with a corresponding Laplace transform of u t as 1 s yields K s2 K s 1 Vots mc 41 B9 OO 2 12 OO 2 S Fore S Turo EM Using standard Laplace tables and some algebra gives the step response for a second order highpass filter as described by Equation 33 as Vout t K e Wo t QQ ex E bur 42 The Butterworth Filter The Butterworth filter offers the ability to control the rate at which the filter changes from passing frequency components to attenuating them In addition this filter linearly changes from the pass band to the attenuation band without the presence of the ripples that are typically found in some of the other filters This filter is known as a maximumly flat filter The Butterworth lowpass filter is described by 1 MO 6 16 H o 43 where N is the order of the filter and wo is the cutoff frequency or 3 dB attenuation point As N increases the transition band at which the filter s frequency response changes from the pass band to the attenuation band decreases For N co the lowpass Butterworth filter becomes the ideal lowpass filter with zero tr
113. t current IL is varied from a minimum to a maximum current From Equation 9 the power dissipated in the regulator is proportional to the voltage across the regulator To minimize the power dissipated in the regulator the goal is to use as minimum a voltage across it as possible Another parameter of importance is the minimum allowable voltage across the regulator for the regulator to maintain a constant output voltage In other words the regulator is still in regulation This minimum voltage across the regulator is known as the dropout voltage Vdo As with any electronic parts there are maximum ratings that must be adhered to such as the maximum input voltage the maximum allowable load current the maximum power dissipation allowed and the maximum operating temperature Finally since these parts are short circuit protected the maximum short circuit current is also given As long as the maximum power dissipation and maximum operating temperature are not exceeded the part will operate indefinitely with its output shorted to ground There are several items that will destroy one of these three terminal regulators even if these parts are correctly installed in the circuit diagram of Figure 3 and the maximum rating are adhere to The first is applying the wrong polarity voltage at the input The second is having Vout be greater than Vin This can occur if Cl gt C2 and the energy storage in the output is greater than the energy storage in the inp
114. t Trigger But V Vref Vcc for Vt gt Vref vout cc for Vt gt Vre 13 Vcc for Vt lt Vref 7 7 Solving for V gives Vout Vin Rl Vout R2 Vin V Vin RI R14 R2 RI 4 R2 14 Substituting Equation 14 into Equation 13 for the case when Vout Vcc yields R1 Vout R2 Vin Vout Vcc when UC RIR 0 Vref 15 Solving Equation 15 for Vin gives f RI RI Vout 4 Vcc when Vin Vref ta 1 Vout R2 16 or substituting for Vout Vcc RI RI Vout 4 Vcc when Vin Vref ta 1 Vcc R2 17 Using the same approach for when Vout Vcc gives RI Vout R2 Vin Vout Vcc when RI 4R lt Vref 18 Substituting Vout with Vcc and solving for Vin gives l R1 RI Vout Vcc when Vin lt Vref ta 1 Vcc R2 19 If Vout Vcc then by Equation 17 Vout switches to Vcc when RI RI Vout 4 Vcc Vcc when Vin lt Vref RS 1 Vcc R2 20 and if Vout Vcc then by Equation 19 Vout switches to Vcc when RI RI Vout Vcc Vcc when Vin gt Vref R2 1 Vcc R2 21 For the special case when Vref 0 Equations 17 and 19 reduce to RI Vout Vcc when Vin gt Vcc RC 22 and 7 8 RI Vout Vcc when Vin lt Vcc R2 23 If Vout Vcc then by Equation 22 Vout switches to Vcc when RI Vout 4 Vcc Vcc when Vin lt Vcc R2 24 and if Vout Vcc then by Equation 23 Vout switches to Vcc when RI Vout Vcc 4 Vcc when Vin gt Vcc
115. t least 5 different resistor values Plot Vout peak to peak versus load resistance Compare this plot with the plot given in the data sheet Maximum Peak Output Voltage versus Load Resistance Design and build a non inverting amplifier with a gain of 1000 Set Vcc 15 volts and Vcc 15 volts Use resistor values as small as possible but greater than 1k ohms Set Vin to 0 volts The best way to do this is to disconnect Vin from the V terminal of the op amp and tie the V terminal to ground Measure Vout This value is the output due to VOS Use Equation 11 to calculate VOS Compare the VOS measured in Step 9 to the value given in the datasheet Summing Amplifier l 2 3 4 Design and build a summing amplifier to implement Vout 2 5 V1 2 V2 Use resistor values as small as possible but greater than 1k ohms Apply a 0 2 volt peak to peak 200 Hz sine wave to V1 and a 1 volt DC input to V2 Using an oscilloscope measure and record the output at Vout Repeat steps 1 3 for a DC inputs of 1 and 2 volts 144 Unity Gain buffer l QU US D 10 11 12 13 Implement the Circuit given in Figure 10 using 1000 ohm resistors Measure all resistors Measure the voltage across each resistor and calculate the current in each resistor What is the voltage across the 1k ohm resistor that represents the light bulb Build a unity gain buffer as given in Figure 11 Measure the voltage across each
116. tage across the capacitor C Vcapacitor and the trigger input as a function of time Since the pulse width of the monostable oscillator circuit depends on the charging to the voltage of 2 3 Vcc changing this voltage value changes the time it takes for condition of Vt gt V of C2 and V lt V of Cl At this point the outputs C1 0 and C2 1 setting the RS FF to reset state on the transistor QI and discharging the capacitor C to zero Removing the 0 01 uf capacitor applied to the CV input and applying a varying voltage as shown in Figure 9 will vary the pulse width of the pulse output The op amp circuit is nothing more than a unity gain buffer isolating the voltage source Vg from reference voltage CV input of the LM555 timer Letting Vg be the voltage on the CV input the total time Tp to reach this voltage on the capacitor is x aye Yg Tp Ra C w 1 AZ 16 9 9 Figure 9 is nothing more than a pulse width modulator PWM with the pulse width proportional to the input voltage Vg Figure 10 gives an example of Vout as a function Vg For this example Vcc 10 volts and Vg is a sine wave with a peak value of 3 volts and an offset of 4 volts so that Vg varies in a sinusoidal manner from 1 volt to 7 volts Figure 9 shows how the pulse width increases as the value of Vg increases Vcc7 Vout d Trigger Pin 2 2 3 4Necd Trigger Pin 2 1 2 Vcc 7 Vcapacitor Vout 0 a cem P al 0 T T T T T T T
117. tant voltage at Vout Assume Vout drops below its regulated voltage given by Equation 4 or 5 Then the V terminal voltage will be less then the V Since the voltage output of the op amp is Aod Vt V the voltage output from the op amp will increase in 3 3 the positive direction Vt gt V This increasing voltage will raise the voltage on the base of the transistor Since Vbe is a constant about 7 volts Vout will increase Vout increases until Vt V Now consider that Vout increases in voltage beyond regulated voltage given in Equation 4 For this case V will be less than V Since the voltage output of the op amp is Aod V V the voltage output from the op amp will tend to decrease in value This lowers the voltage on the base of the transistor which lowers the transistor s emitter voltage and lowers Vout As a final note R5 is used to limit the current out of the op amp and capacitors Cl and C2 are bypass capacitors used to maintain low AC impedance path to ground from Vin and Vout These capacitors are used to eliminate any AC signals from appearing on Vin and Vout so the output of the regulator is a constant DC value The regulator of Figure 2 is a simple regulator with no short circuit or thermal protection The linear regulator of Figure 2 is available in a three terminal part with both thermal and short circuit protection Figure 3 gives the circuit diagram for this regulator One set of linear regulators t
118. tep response of this filter Repeat Step 4 for square wave frequencies of 1000 2000 and 5000 Hz Build a first order highpass filter using the circuit given in Figure 7 a with wo 10 000 rad sec 621 8 9 10 Applying a 1 volt peak sine wave input with frequencies varying from 100 Hz to 100 kHz plot its magnitude spectrum Measure at least 3 points per decade 1X 2X and 5X Determine the attenuation factor in dB Decade Apply a 1 volt peak to peak square wave input with a frequency of 500 Hz Measure and plot using an oscilloscope the step response of this filter Repeat Step 9 for square wave frequencies of 1000 2000 and 5000 Hz Second order Filters l 2 10 Apply a 2 volt peak to peak square wave input with a frequency of 500 Hz 11 12 Build a second order lowpass filter using the circuit given in Figure 10 with wo 10 000 rad sec with Q 2 minimum filter resistor should be 10kQ Applying a 2 volt peak to peak sine wave input with frequencies varying from 100 Hz to 100 KHz plot its magnitude spectrum Measure at least 3 points per decade 1X 2X and 5X What is the attenuation factor in dB Decade Measure Vout at o oo and compare this result to K Q Apply a 2 volt peak to peak square wave input with a frequency of 500 Hz Measure and plot using an oscilloscope the step response of this filter Measure the peak overshoot and compute the percent overshoot using Equation 31
119. the diode is off I2 0 and since no current flows into the V terminal of the op amp then the current I1 flowing in the resistor R1 is zero Since I2 0 then Vout D1 i lt R 1N4148 1k Vcc of UT T t084 Vin C Vcc Nu Figure 9 The ideal half wave rectifier Vout 0 for Vin gt 0 19 Equations 18 and 19 describe an inverting half wave rectifier output as described by Figure 6 without the effects of Vx Changing the direction changes the polarity of Equation 18 and 19 and inverts the output polarity of the half wave rectifier of Figure 10 5 10 1N4148 tVcc l U1 tl084 Vcc Figure 10 Inverting configuration ideal half wave rectifier The main limitation of the half wave rectifier circuits presented in Figures 9 and 10 is that for half the time period the output of the op amp is in saturation either near the positive or negative rails Care must be taken when an op amp s output is at its rails and if the input common mode voltage is exceeded When the op amp is running open loop with no feedback Vt V Vout will not be zero when the diode D1 is off In addition for an op amp to come out of saturation it takes time and slows the response of the half wave rectifier circuits given in Figures 9 and 10 Adding a diode D2 as shown in Figure 11 prevents the op amp from going into saturation and increases the overall response time of the half wave rectifier
120. the forward diode voltage and D2 turns on when the trigger input goes below Vd These two diodes guarantee that the trigger input is bounded between Vd to Vcc Vd protecting this input pin Resistors R1 R2 and the capacitor C2 form a highpass filter used to take the derivative of the input V3 The trigger input which has the steady input of Vcc 2 uses the edges of V3 to trigger a single pulse output from the LM555 timer Figure 7 shows the trigger input and the V3 supply Note how the input network has taken the derivative of V3 The trigger input Pin 2 is nothing more the derivative of V3 superimposed on a Vcc 2 offset due to the steady value of the trigger input of Vcc 2 Hcc Vcc 10k Rp D1 CU NEM Ra C2 ZN d ut E T 1N4148 s TRIG DIS dpf D2 1N4148 v3 R2 7X Qut OUT THRS 4 T NE555 ie 10k Vcc RST cme S7 01pf vs Figure 6 The LM555 timer in a monostable configuration T Vec 7 Pin 2 Trig Vcc 2 E V3 0 4 T T T T T T T T T T 0 Time Figure 7 The trigger input to the monostable oscillator circuit given in Figure 6 9 8 A negative going edge on the trigger input starts a trigger event that generates a single pulse At this point in time the voltage on the capacitor C is 0 volts The trigger event on the trigger input sets the RS FF to a set condition C2 0 and
121. the simulation package of your choice in which you are the most familiar with Mulitsim Workbench or LTSpice IV simulate the various comparator circuits Download the National Semiconductor LM393 voltage comparator datasheet and become familiar with this part Using an op amp with Vcc set to 15 volts and Vcc set to 15 volts simulate the comparator circuit of Figure 3 Use a 10 volts peak 500 Hz triangle waveform for the input Vin DC offset 0 volts Plot Vout as a function of time for Vref 1volt Determine the voltage Vin where Vout switches from Vcc to Vcc 7 1 ge Ei E ee OE UM l AUS eoe m NX aa bb cc Repeat Steps b e for Vref 2 volts 5 volts and 8 volts Using an op amp with Vcc set to 15 volts and Vcc set to 15 volts simulate the comparator circuit of Figure 4 Use a 10 volts peak 500 Hz triangle waveform for the input Vin DC offset 0 volts Plot Vout as a function of time for Vref 1 volt Determine the voltage Vin where Vout switches from Vcc to Vcc Repeat Steps g j for Vref 2 volts 5 volts and 8 volts Using an op amp with Vcc set to 15 volts and Vcc set to 15 volts simulate the comparator circuit of Figure 8 Let R2 10k and R1 1k Use a 5 volts peak 500 Hz triangle waveform for the input Vin DC offset 0 volts Determine the voltage Vin where Vout switches from Vcc to Vcc Plot Vout as a function of time Determine Vout max and Vout min Replace Vcc wit
122. ther components can become extremely hot and cause severe burns if touched If resistors or other components on your proto board catch fire turn off the power supply and notify the instructor If electronic instruments catch fire press the Emergency Disconnect red button These small electrical fires extinguish quickly after the power is shut off Avoid using fire extinguishers on electronic instruments Explosions When using electrolytic tantalum capacitors be careful to observe proper polarity and do not exceed the voltage rating Electrolytic and tantalum capacitors can explode and cause injury A first aid kit is located on the wall near the door Proceed to Student Health Services if needed ii EXPERIMENT 1 Linear Operational Amplifier Applications Goals To introduce the concepts of an operational amplifier op amp used as a non inverting amplifier inverting amplifier unity gain buffer and a summing amplifier Data collected during this laboratory experiment will be compared to the datasheet of the operational amplifier used References The following two links are to the Tektronix website for the user manuals for the DPO 4034B Mixed Signal oscilloscope and for the AFG3022B Arbitrary Function generator Oscilloscope http www tek com search apachesolr_search DPO 204034B 20user 20manu al Arbitrary Function Generator http www tek com search apachesolr_search afg3022b filters tid 3A1016 Please note
123. this case is then given by R3 RF Vout RA Vin 40 This is the top left curve in Figure 17 Similarly for the case when V1 lt 0 then VRI R2 Vout RI 41 547 A R4 1N4148 VR2 VRI RA WAY V out Vin TROC VR2 b 5 18 VRI VR2 c d VR2 Figure 18 A two diode limiter circuit diagram a the actual circuit b the model for when D1 and D2 are both off c the model for when D1 is off and D2 is on d the model for when for D1 is on and D2 is off 5 19 When V1 0 diode D1 is on and diode D2 is off as shown in Figure 18 d Diode D1 on places R2 is parallel with RF and Vout becomes R2 I RF RA Vout 2 Vin 42 This is the bottom right curve in Figure 16 Procedure General Setup 1 Record the model and serial number of the scope power supply multimeter and function generator used in laboratory experiment 2 Download the datasheet LM 285 precision voltage reference 3 When comparing datasheet data values to experimental data use the typical values in the datasheet if given When measuring any values make sure to measure all inputs as well as the output of the circuit Do not rely on the values indicated on the instruments Always measure all signal values Before turning any power on double check the wiring to make sure that it is correct Measure all resistors that are used in the amplifier circuits usin
124. tion boxes to the designated location Your lab grade will be affected if your laboratory station is not tidy when you leave 6 University property must not be taken from the laboratory 7 Do not move instruments from one lab station to another lab station 8 Do not tamper with or remove security straps locks or other security devices Do not disable or attempt to defeat the security camera 9 When touching the FPGA development boards please do not touch the solid state parts on the board but handle the board from its edge 10 ANYONE VIOLATING ANY RULES OR REGULATIONS MAY BE DENIED ACCESS TO THESE FACILITIES I have read and understand these rules and procedures I agree to abide by these rules and procedures at all times while using these facilities I understand that failure to follow these rules and procedures will result in my immediate dismissal from the laboratory and additional disciplinary action may be taken Signature Date Lab Laboratory Safety Information Introduction The danger of injury or death from electrical shock fire or explosion is present while conducting experiments in this laboratory To work safely it is important that you understand the prudent practices necessary to minimize the risks and what to do if there is an accident Electrical Shock Avoid contact with conductors in energized electrical circuits The typical cannot let go the current in which a person cannot let go current is about
125. to download the user manual Tektronix requires that you fill out the user information form before downloading can begin Equipment Oscilloscope DPO 4034B Mixed Signal Function Generator AFG3022B Triple Power supply Breadboard TL081 TL084 family of operational amplifiers Capacitors available in the laboratory Resistors available in the laboratory Pre laboratory Read this laboratory experiment carefully to become familiar with the background procedural steps in this experiment Download the two user manuals for the Tektronix function generator and oscilloscope and become familiar with their use Using the simulation package of your choice in which you are the most familiar with Multisim Workbench or LTSpice IV simulate the following circuits If you do not have access to Multisim or Workbench LTSpice IV is a free to use spice 1 1 program available from Linear Technology Inc and can be downloaded from the following site http www linear com designtools software LTspice The only disadvantage is the part library is for only Linear Technology parts They do offer a universal operational amplifier UniversalOpamp2 that can be used for many of the simulations required for EEL4309 laboratory experiments The equations required for gain Ay are given in the appropriate sections for the non inverting amplifier inverting amplifier unity gain buffer and the summing amplifier a Design a gain Av of 3 non inverting amplifier using
126. tput is then Vout Vo a 1 27 R1 R2 Vcc ae R U1 I Vo 1 235 Vout Eu 7X Hl 20 TLO84 Vcc Figure 16 A schematic diagram for precision voltage reference But Vo 2 1 235 volts R2 Vout 1 235 Stu 1 28 To design a precision voltage reference for a desired output Vout Equation 28 is used and the ratio of R2 R1 is found R2 _ Vout RI 1 235 29 Either R1 or R2 is chosen and the other resistor is calculated from Equation 29 The final step is to solve Equation 26 for R and to calculate R based on the value for Vcc and the desired current I between 10 microamps and 20 milliamps The Ideal Diode Limiter There are many types of limiter circuits that limit the output to a fixed value Many of these circuits are based upon using ether standard or zener diodes to perform the limiting function Figure 18a gives the two diode limiter where the voltage limit can be set using resistors For this derivation and discussion it is assumed that V1 and V2 are much greater than the forward biased voltage Vx of the diodes used so that Vx can be ignored in the derivation Under this assumption ideal diodes will be assumed where Vx is assumed to be zero 5 15 Analyzing Figure 18 a further shows that if V1 gt 0 and V2 lt 0 both diodes will be off and the output is the simply the circuit shown in Figure 18 b To satisfy the V1 0 and V2 0 Vout can be found by relating Vout to VR1 and VR2
127. ts to charge to Vcc with an initial voltage on the capacitor of Vcc 2 Substituting these values into Equation 32 gives V t Vee 4 Vcc 2 Vcc e VRC 2 Vcc 3 2 Vec e RC 33 The capacitor continues to charge to Vcc until V lt Vt Vcc 2 At this point Vout switches states going to Vcc again Setting V t Vcc 2 and solving for t gives the total time T2 it takes the capacitor to charge to Vcc 2 T2 RC In 3 1 0986 RC 34 The process of charging the capacitor to Vcc 2 to Vcc 2 produces a square wave with a period Tp Tp T1 T2 RC 2 In 3 35 The frequency of oscillation is then defined as 1 1 0 455 paesc ee 36 TP RC 2 In 3 RC So Figure 5 gives a sample output showing Vout V and V as a function of time Another form of an oscillator using a Schmitt trigger is shown in Figure 7 This is a triangle square wave generator which uses an integrator and a Schmitt trigger The equations that describe the Schmitt trigger are taken from Laboratory 7 and given here as RI Vout Vcc when Vx gt Vcc R2 37 and 8 9 RI Vout Vcc when Vx lt Vcc R2 38 If Vout Vcc then by Equation 37 Vout switches to Vcc when RI Vout 4 Vcc Vcc when Vx lt Vcc R2 39 and if Vout Vcc then by Equation 38 Vout switches to Vcc when RI Vout Vcc Vcc when Vx gt Vcc R2 40 J Vout Vc C were po Vcc 24 Figur
128. ttaching the oscilloscope at the output shorts the input and output together To measure the output using the oscilloscope one of the output leads is tied to one channel of the oscilloscope and the other is tied to an additional channel Then the math function of the oscilloscope is used to take the difference between the two leads The ground of the scope is tied to the ground lead of the signal generator 5 Measure the DC voltage with the multimeter and compare the results to Equation 6 6 Repeat Step 4 for Figure 7b for R 1K and C 470 pf Obtain the peak to peak ripple voltage How does this value compare to Equation 12 What is the DC voltage at the output Vout How does this value compare to Equation 14 7 Build and design the ideal half wave rectifier given in Figure 9 for R 1k Set Vin to a 200 Hz 10 volt peak to peak sine wave with no DC offset Also set Vcc 15 volts and Vcc 15 volts Use this same value for all steps unless otherwise directed Obtain a plot of Vin and Vout versus time using the oscilloscope Change the diode orientation in Figure 9 and repeat Step 7 9 Change the input frequency of the sine wave to 2000 Hz 20kHz and 200 kHz and repeat Step 7 10 Build and design the ideal half wave rectifier given in Figure 11 for RI R2 1k Set Vin to a 200 Hz 10 volt peak to peak sine wave with no DC offset Obtain a plot of Vin and Vout versus time using the oscilloscope 11 Change the diode orientat
129. ual for writing the report for this experiment l The equipment used model and serial number You can also use Channel B of the function generator to generate V2 see Footnote 1 243 Note c 1 9 n9 RO 12 13 14 17 18 19 Laboratory partners Date and time data was taken Your laboratory report should include the goal of the laboratory experiment The procedures All calculations for each step All plots generated for each step All comparisons calculations All waveforms obtained in each step For each data collection step in the procedure there should be either data collected a calculation performed a waveform recorded Please include these in the report Short summary discussing what is observed for each of the steps given in the laboratory experiment Also include what you learned For the difference amplifier compare the theoretical CMMR versus the measured CMRR Discuss the frequency plots of CMMR versus frequency for the difference amplifier 15 16 Look up for the op amp used in this laboratory experiment the CMRR Discuss in this laboratory report the results of steps 25 and 26 for the difference amplifier For the instrumentation amplifier compare the theoretical CMMR versus the measured CMRR Discuss the frequency plots of CMMR versus frequency for the instrumentation amplifier Is the curve linear for IL versus Vin All schematics Circuit diagrams for this la
130. us terminal of the op amp is at ground and the current into the op amp terminal is zero the current flowing into R1 is equal to the sum of current due to each input 140 V3 HAN F Vout Figure 12 A schematic for a summing amplifier Equation 12 gives that the current through RF is equal to the sum of all of the current through R1 R2 R3 and R4 IRF IR1 IR2 IR3 IR4 12 Solving for each of the currents in terms of the voltage across each Resistor and substituting this into 12 gives 0 Vout VI 0 V2 0 V3 0 V4 0 RF RI R2 R3 R4 13 and finally solving for Vout gives RF RF RF RF Vout R Vit Ra V2 R3 V3 R4 V4 14 Equation 13 gives the output at op amp as the weighted sum of the inputs V1 V2 V3 and V4 The summing amplifier of Figure 12 can be easily expanded to additional inputs by simply adding addition voltage source inputs and the appropriate resistors For example for a two input summing amplifier with RF 3k ohms and R1 1K ohms and R2 3k ohms the following equation is implemented Vout 3 V1 V2 15 Some comments about the schematic in Figure 12 This schematic skipped drawing the op amp power supply that was drawn in the previous schematics of this lab This does not mean for this circuit that the op amp power supply is not needed It is common to not to draw the op amp power supply in a schematic so 141 as to make the schematic simpler to read but the power supp
131. ut This commonly occurs during power off if C1 gt C2 The input to regulator will discharge toward zero volts faster than the output Figure 4 shows a solution to protecting the regulator should Vout become greater than Vin Under normal use Vin gt Vout and the diode is reversed biased Should Vout become greater than Vin the diode is forward biased preventing any current flowing into the regulators from its output 3 5 Di 7805 or 7812 Iin IL a In Out Vout C Gnd us LJ Vin C2 C1 RL ilz IQ ilie 1k 470pf 470pf EVA Figure 4 An example of a linear voltage regulator with protection The three terminal regulators can also be made to be adjustable so any desired regulated output voltage can be obtained The only requirement is that the minimum voltage is that of the part itself For example a 7805 regulator can be made adjustable but its minimum output voltage is 5 volts Figure 5 gives the circuit required to make a three terminal linear regulator adjustable For this discussion assume the regulator output voltage is Vreg the voltage between the output and the ground pins of the regulator Then IRI is then given by _ Vreg IRI RI oc 11 and the voltage across R2 VR2 is V VR2 R2 IQ IRI R2 io 8 12 The output voltage from the regulator Vout is the sum of VR1 VR2 But VRI is equal to Vreg Vreg Vout R2 to e
132. utput for a 5 gain inverting amplifier with a 1 volt triangle wave input 1 4 The interesting item about the inverting amplifier is that the gain is only a function of the ratio of the two resistors of R1 and R2 Typical values of resistors used in op amp circuits usually are in the range of 1k ohms to 10 mega ohms Given that there is a virtual short between the two inputs of the op amp V Vt 0 volts and the current into both input terminals is zero the current flowing in R1 is the same as the current flowing in R2 Vin Ov Vin Ov Vout Vout R2 R2 RI RI 5 IR1 IR2 The bandwidth of an inverting amplifier depends on the size of the signal on Vout and broken into two categories of small signal and large signal The two equations that give the 3dB frequency the frequency in which the magnitude of the voltage gain is reduced by 0 707 from its value given in Equation 4 are Gain Bandwidth Product small signal f 3dB 6 a 1 R2 Slew Rat large signal f 3dB H E 7 onl BS 1 Vin peak Vin lv ly time 45v 5v Figure 4 Vout for a square wave input showing the affect of slew rate limit Actual bandwidth of the inverting amplifier is then the smaller of Equations 6 and 7 The Gain Bandwidth Product of an op amp can be found in its datasheet and it s the frequency when Aod of the op amp is equal to one The slew rate is the maximum rate of change of the output Vout given in volts pe
133. voltages as well as the dropout voltages from the datasheet Discuss the efficiency of this linear regulator and why is efficiency an important parameter Where does the regulator power go to Is the curve linear for IL versus Vin 3 9 EXPERIMENT 4 Switching Voltage Regulators Goals To introduce the concepts of using a switching regulator as a voltage regulator The theory of a switching regulator will be presented along with its a design Data collected during this laboratory experiment will be compared to the datasheet for the switching regulator used References Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design D A Neamen McGraw Hill 4th Edition 2007 ISBN 978 0 07 252362 1 The following two links are to the Tektronix website for the user manual for the TDS2014B oscilloscope and for the AFG3022B Function generator Oscilloscope http www2 tek com cmswpt madetails lotr ct MA amp cs mur amp ci 16272 amp 1c EN Equipment Oscilloscope DPO 4034B Triple Power supply Capacitors available in the laboratory Resistors available in the laboratory Multimeter Inductor 100 uH Electrolytic Capacitors 470 uF at 15 volts LM 2576 ADJ switching regulator Fast recovery diode MBR 1060 Pre laboratory Read this laboratory experiment carefully to become familiar with the background and the procedural steps in this experiment Carefully read each section and become familiar with the equations for each circuit Us
134. with the addition of a unity gain buffer and an additional signal source Vg j Set V3 to a 0 to Vcc 2 square wave with a 50 duty cycle and a frequency of 2000 Hz k Set Vg 6 67 volts DC and measure Tp from the simulated waveform for Vout and compare this result to what is expected from Equation 16 l Set Vg toasine wave with a peak value of 3 volts and an offset of 4 volts so that Vg varies in a sinusoidal manner from 1 volt to 7 volts m Measure Vout and Vg simulated waveforms Compare these results to that given in Figure 10 Discussion The LM555 NE555 timer is a versatile integrated circuit that can be configured as an oscillator a pulse width modulator and a single variable width pulse generator known as an astable oscillator or one shot Most datasheets give many other application of this device Figure 1 is the pin out for the LM555 timer and Figure 2 gives the internal block diagram The LM555 contains two voltage comparators one set reset RS also SR flip flop also latch or register one inverter and one open collector NPN transistor The voltage divider composed of R1 R2 and R3 set the voltage at the V input of comparator C2 Pin 5 to 2 3 Vcc and the V input of comparator C1 to 1 3 Vcc The transistor Q1 Pin 7 is typically used as a method of discharging any timing capacitors used in any timing circuit configurations GND Vcc 5 U1 i TRIG DIS OUT THRS NE555 a RST CV Figure1
135. wrong polarity power on Vcc and Vcc Care must be taken to prevent accidentally reversing the op amp s power supply IR2 IR1 R2 R1 Vcc E C1 v dm ToC ix MH t lt Vout a 15v Vin o N72 C G2 ue NE Nee Ir E NSINE I 15v Figure 5 The schematic for a non inverting amplifier Non inverting Amplifier Figure 5 gives the schematic diagram for a non inverting amplifier Note how the input is now on the V terminal of the op amp where for the inverting amplifier 1 6 the V was grounded For the non inverting amplifier is should be noted that ground does not get directly tied to the op amp but is tied to one side of R2 The gain Av for a non inverting amplifier is given by Vout R1 V UWin R2 9 In comparing Equation 9 to Equation 4 there is no minus sign indicating that the phase shift for a non inverting amplifier is 0 Setting R1 4 R2 gives a gain Av of 5 and is shown in Figure 6 for a triangle wave input Vin lv lv time 5v Vout time 5v Figure 6 The output for a 5 gain non inverting amplifier with a 1 volt triangle wave input Given that there is a virtual short between the two inputs of the op amp V Vt Vin and the current into both input terminals is zero the current flowing in R1 is the same as the current flowing in R2 Vin Ov Vin Vout Vin R FRS RI 10 IR1 IR2 The bandwidth of a non inverting amplifier de
136. ws for reasonably sized inductors and capacitors to be used Procedure General Setup 1 Record the model and serial number of the scope power supply multimeter and function generator used in laboratory experiment 2 Download the datasheet LM 2576 ADJ switching regulator This will be needed to obtain the pin out of the regulator When comparing datasheet data values to experimental data use the typical values in the datasheet if given 3 When measuring any values make sure to measure all inputs as well as the output of the circuit Do not rely on the values indicated on the instruments Always measure all signal values 4 Before turning any power on double check the wiring to make sure that it is correct 5 Measure all resistors that are used in the amplifier circuits using the multimeter and record these values 6 Use all measured values to determine experimental results such as gain and current 7 Comparing data means to calculate the percent difference between two values For example theoretical values versus measured values 8 Comparing data graphically means to plot the data on the same plot to see how the data overlaps Switching Regulator 1 Have the lab assistant approve your design using a 100 uH inductor and two 4 8 470uF 15 volts capacitors 2 Build your design making sure to correctly wire the LM2576 the polarity of the diode and the electrolytic capacitors Triple check your wiring before applying a
137. y a voltage source commonly called the offset voltage VOS at the input given by Vx VOS RI 11 p Figure 8 shows this voltage source VOS place in series with the input signal Vin Unity Gain Buffer or Voltage Follower Equation 9 gives the voltage gain Av for the non inverting amplifier If R1 is set to 0 and R2 is set to infinity then Av reduces to 1 But R1 0 is the same as a wire and R2 equal to infinity is nothing more than an open Figure 9 gives the schematic for a unity gain buffer For this circuit Vout 2 Vin Care must be taken when picking an op amp for a unity gain buffer Many op amps are not stable for non inverting gains less than 3 5 These op amps tend to oscillate The datasheet for a particular op amp usually states if it s not unity gain stable T Vcc E C1 Em Ee Whe ons MET ee Vout w a 15v Vin o o C2 2k 3E Vee i C NSINE 15v Figure 9 The schematic for a unity gain buffer amplifier Voltage Source Figure 10 A 12 volt light bulb connected to a 1000 ohm 12 voltage source One of the interesting facts about a unit gain buffer is that its input current Iin is zero Since the input impedance is defined as Zin Vin Iin and since Iin is zero then Zin is equal to infinity or is very large An example of where a unity gain buffer is used is when a source has a high impedance value and it needs to drive a 1 9 low imp
138. ypass capacitors at the two power supplies of value 100uF each Set fo 1000 Hz Obtain oscilloscope waveforms of Vout V and V as a function of time Determine the frequency of oscillation the duty cycle and the peak to peak value of Vout By changing the capacitor increase the frequency of oscillation until Vout is no longer an acceptable square wave Measure this frequency and include it in the laboratory report Obtain oscilloscope waveforms of Vout as a function of time Disconnect R2 from ground and apply a 0 to 5 volt voltage source between the disconnected end of R2 and ground Determine the frequency of oscillation the duty cycle and the peak to peak value of Vout Obtain oscilloscope waveforms of Vout as a function of time Using an op amp with Vcc set to 15 volts and Vcc set to 15 volts design and build the triangle square wave waveform generator circuit of Figure 7 Be certain to include bypass capacitors at the two power supplies of value 100uF each Set fo 2 1000 Hz Obtain oscilloscope waveforms of Vout and Vx as a function of time Determine the frequency of oscillation and the peak to peak value of Vout 8 13 Report Please follow the procedures in this laboratory manual for writing the report for this experiment Include in your report E ego I N UA qe UD XL ee 11 The equipment used model and serial number Laboratory partners Date and time data was taken Your laboratory report should include the

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