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act state emergency service navigate in urban and rural environments

1. A Map title Usually shown in the top centre of the map It may be the name of an important town or an area and indicates roughly the coverage of the map B Type of map Usually located on the top left beneath the representative fraction It describes the type of map e g topographic geological Cc Map edition and Usually located at the top right of the map and is sometimes sheet number reproduced at the bottom right D Grid reference Usually located at the bottom left of the map it describes how to block calculate a six figure grid reference E North points Usually located on the bottom margin and shows for a given diagram year the direction of true magnetic and grid north F Conventional Usually a series of blocks located at the bottom of the map signs block which gives a legend of the conventional signs used together with their meanings G Control and Usually located at the bottom of the map above the grid production block reference block and gives production details H Index to adjoining Located at the bottom left of the map It gives the title of sheets adjoining maps l Representative A method of indicating the scale of the map Located at the top fraction left of the map and also at the bottom above the linear scale J Linear scale Located at the bottom centre of the map K Contour interval The contour interval vertical distance between contour lines is shown beneath the linea
2. Can you use a compass to alter direction to avoid an obstacle gt If you have answered YES to all of the questions above you are ready for the next topic gt lf you have answered NO to any question ask your trainer for help gt lf you don t feel confident with an activity you may want to go back and review it ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 84 NAVIGATE IN URBAN AND RURAL ENVIRONMENTS SECTION FOUR NAVIGATION AND PLANNING Element Performance Criteria 2 Determine and plan a safe route 2 1 Navigation records are prepared in accordance to organisations practices 2 2 Cartographic information navigation techniques local and environmental conditions are interpreted to determine and plan a safe route 2 3 Potential access restrictions which may limit thoroughfare are identified and arrangements made to gain access in accordance with organisations policies and practices and regulatory requirements 3 1 Record of proposed route and navigation aids are 3 Navigate to destination used to maintain compliance with planned route 3 2 Driver is directed to follow indicated route as required 3 3 Current location is regularly verified within accepted tolerances 3 4 Route is modified to address prevailing conditions and if required alternate strategies are initiated 3 5 Lost en route procedures are implemented if required 3 6 Unanticipated access difficulties
3. 2 Keep it out of sunlight when not in use Avoid extremes of heat and cold which could affect the liquid inside the housing Prevent concussion to the instrument e g do not drop it or knock it against hard objects as the housing seal may become damaged if an air bubble develops inside the housing the compass is faulty and should not be used and Keep it free from dirt as sand particles around the housing will erode its surface and eventually cause the housing to rotate too easily making it difficult to keep on a set bearing Always check before use that the housing is free of bubbles that the cord is in good order and that any other attachments are functioning properly Keep in a pocket during use to avoid snagging knocking it on objects and too much unnecessary contact which can erase the figures on the compass face ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 83 SELF CHECK YES NO Did you understand the activity activities you were asked to do Did you have enough time to complete the activity activities Can you use a protractor to take and plot a grid bearing Can you calculate changes in magnetic variation over a given time frame Can you calculate magnetic bearings between given locations Using the Silva compass can you determine magnetic bearings of given landmarks Can you calculate back bearings Can you check a compass for local magnetic attraction
4. Image supplied by TASMAP 2 Place the protractor on the map and position it so that the centre point or hole is directly over the intersection of the line and the Easting with the north line of the protractor aligned with the Easting Refer to the diagram on the following page 3 You can then read off the bearing at the graduated edge of the protractor where the pencil line meets it 4 Take care in orienting and reading graduations on semicircular or rectangular protractors Both these types of protractors contain two sets of figures one being the back bearing of the other ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 _ _ Image supplied by TASMAP To plot a bearing on a map proceed as follows 1 Place the protractor on the map and position it so that the centre point or hole is directly over point O the location on the map from which the bearing is to be plotted and the north line is parallel to an Easting On the graduated edge of the protractor find the bearing you have been given to plot Mark the map with a pencil at that bearing Remove the protractor and draw a thin line through point O and the pencil mark This line is the required grid bearing ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 67 teaming acti Activity 21 From grid references provided by your trainer practice using a protractor to measure a bearing teaming act Activity 22 From grid refer
5. J sector reading upwards hence 49J 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 The map covering Canberra is numbered 55 SI the S refers to the southern hemisphere The Grid zones are then further sub divided to provide more detail eer rent ur Bevwve eeu est ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 38 Latitudes and Longitudes Longitude is used together with latitude to form a grid on which it is possible to locate any place on the earth Lines of Latitude parallels run from east to west They show how far a place is away from the equator The equator s latitude is 0 and the poles are 90 south and north One degree of latitude equals about 110 kilometres Canberra is located at a latitude of 35 S south of the equator Sydney is located at a latitude of 33 S Melbourne is located at a latitude of 372 S Lines of longitude meridians run from the north pole to the south pole There are 360 equally spaced meridians and at the equator they are approximately 110 km apart They become closer as we move away from the equator and meet at the North and South poles Canberra is located at a longitude of 149 08 East of the Greenwich meridian The distance between lines of longitude at Canberra s latitude is a little less than 91 km 90 85 km Sydney is located at a longitude of 151 S Melbourne is located at a longitude of 144 S ACT State Emergency Service Versio
6. State forest County Ki State recreation area Parish MUNRO National park nature reserve Cadastre or regional park District 3C a Ka oO ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 29 teaming actMiy Activity 10 Using the map provided and from information provided by your Trainer identify four or five map symbols from the map legend Summary The ability to read maps comes into almost all fields of SES and RFS operations from a simple task of driving to the store for stationery supplies to attending an emergency Being able to read a variety of maps will ensure you arrive at your location in the shortest time possible ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 30 NAVIGATE IN URBAN AND RURAL ENVIRONMENTS SECTION TWO READING TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS Element Performance Criteria 1 Determine current location 1 3 Cartographic information and navigation destination and resources techniques are applied to plot positions on a map and determine current location and destination within accepted tolerances ACT Rural Fire Service amp ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 July 2004 31 SESSION 2 GRID REFERENCES Learning Outcomes for this session e Explain how to determine locations on a topographic map e Locate features using four figure grid references e Locate landmarks using six figure grid references e Use a Romer Scale
7. Calculating the grid magnetic angle for 2003 Example The number of years elapsed since the diagram on the left was correct is 2003 1991 12 years and as the annual change is easterly by 0 1 every 3 years then 0 4 must be added to the 1991 grid magnetic angle 14 5 0 4 14 9 Easterly variation TN GN MN GRID CONVERGENCE os GRID MAGNETIC ANGLE 14 5 TRUE NORTH GRID NORTH AND MAGNETIC NORTH ARE SHOWN DIAGRAMMATICALLY FOR THE CENTRE OF THIS MAP MAGNETIC NORTH IS CORRECT FOR 1991 AND MOVES EASTERLY ABOUT 0 1 EVERY THREE YEARS Westerly variation mo MN GRID CONVERGENCE os GRID MAGNETIC ANGLE 4 TRUE NORTH GRID NORTH AND MAGNETIC NORTH ARE SHOWN DIAGRAMMATICALLY FOR THE CENTRE OF THIS MAP MAGNETIC NORTH IS CORRECT FOR 1995 AND MOVES EASTERLY ABOUT 0 1 EVERY TWO YEARS teaming at Activity 25 From the diagram on the map provided by your Trainer calculate the magnetic variation you need to use to convert bearings ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 71 Conversion of Bearings Compass bearings taken on the ground must be converted to grid bearings for plotting on a map Conversely grid bearings taken from a map will have to be converted to magnetic bearings before they can be used with a compass on the ground To convert a bearing from grid to magnetic or magnetic to grid is a simple matter of adding or subtracting the magnetic variation Unfortunately the magne
8. Fire Direction F Wind Direction Burnt Area ae n Aerial Ignition Divisional Command Water Point Vehicle Firefighting water supply Threatened Property Divisional Boundary Use geographical names Sector Boundary OOOOO Use alphabetical names Staging Area Where resources are available Airbase Fixed wing and or helicopter AIR base Water Point Helicopter Helicopter water supply ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 25 teaming actv Y Activity 8 List the various types of maps that you might be required to navigate from and their uses teaming acti Activity 9 A crew responding to a call from Roseview at 8663 Monaro Highway advises that they are at 8827 Bellview which is on their right hand side In which direction should they proceed ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 26 THE INFORMATION YOU NEED TO READ A MAP All map users should be familiar with the information available in written and pictorial form around the edges of the map This data identifies and explains the map giving details not only for use in connection with the map itself but also the date of the information and the sources from which it has been compiled The type of information and the layout may differ slightly from one map to another Listed below are the items that are normally part of the standard layout Marginal Information
9. 2004 Access and Equity The Course Coordinator and Trainers Assessors will ensure that all participants have equitable access to the benefits of training and assessment Recognition of Prior Learning If you feel that you have completed the appropriate training or have sufficient experience to meet the required skills competencies outlined in the training program for PUAOPE003A Navigate in Urban and Rural Environments see your training officer They will arrange for you to participate in an RPL RCC process To be granted competence what do need to do e Demonstrate your skills and knowledge to a workplace assessor through an assessment process or e Produce certificates or evidence of training courses you have completed previously Health and Safety The Course Coordinator Trainers Assessors and Course Participants must be made aware of relevant workplace health and safety issues in all situations and are required to demonstrate safe working practices at all times A Safety Advisor may be appointed depending on the nature of the activities and is to be familiar with his her duties Learning Manual This Learning Manual will assist you throughout the course please ensure that you bring it with you You are strongly advised to study it as part of pre course reading Unless otherwise directed you are not required to complete any of the activities provided in this workbook prior to the commencement of the course Certification Do
10. State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 49 Height of contours On the map each contour is drawn at a specific height above a fixed datum The vertical height difference between contours is called the contour interval and is shown in the marginal information on the map It is important to realise that if the contour interval is 20 metres for example something smaller than 20 metres may not appear on the map Every fifth contour may be drawn heavier to aid measuring height These are known as index contours Some contours have the height shown at intervals along their length On most maps these heights are printed so that they read correctly when facing uphill This can be useful when determining the direction of high ground Contour patterns Each topographic feature such as a spur or a knoll is represented by its own particular contour pattern The diagram below shows some contour patterns The most important points to remember about contour patterns are Contour lines close together indicate steep slopes Contour lines far apart indicate gentle slopes Evenly spaced contour lines indicate uniform slopes Vv Vv Y V WV When the contour lines curve away from the height of the slope the slope is convex gt When the contour lines draw back up to the top of the slope the slope is concave 200 100 gt Concave w 200 100 Convex b 200 100 A Uniform n Image suppli
11. a gradient for example 1 in 10 or 1 in 20 which may be written as 1 10 or 1 20 A gradient of 1 in 10 means that in a distance of 10 units horizontally the ground rises or falls 1 unit Slope Heigh Gradient Ground The eye exaggerates slopes to the extent that many people looking down a slope of 1 1 would say that it was vertical Looking down a slope of 1 3 or 1 4 they would be convinced that it was at least 1 1 It is important therefore to be able to visualise the slope or gradient of the ground from a study of the map The following diagram shows the effect of various gradients i 1 1 T 1 2 l 1 3 t 1 10 1 ist 1 40 limit of cycling a Steep railway Image supplied by TASMAP 79 teaming actvi Y Activity 18 Determine the gradient of the diagram at the top of the page by measuring the vertical and horizontal distance Can a vehicle drive up that slope ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 54 Measuring gradients Gradients can be measured accurately using instruments designed specifically for that purpose Reasonably accurate results can also be achieved by using information from the map When working on a valley floor and you see the hilltop or knoll it usually appears to be a very direct route from the where you are It is useful to work out the gradient as what looks like an easy walk becomes a very difficult and tiring expedition By reading the contours and gradient a
12. are reported in accordance with organisation s policies and procedures 3 7 En route and arrival reporting is communicated in accordance with organisation s policies and procedures 4 1 Navigation or nominated reports are completed in 4 Complete post navigational accordance with organisation s policies and procedures activities 4 2 Navigational equipment is recovered reset updated and serviced according to operational standards and manufacturer s specifications ACT Rural Fire Service amp ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 July 2004 85 SESSION 8 NAVIGATION ACROSS COUNTRY Learning Outcomes for this session e Explain planning considerations for a cross country walk e Demonstrate how to find north using a watch e Prepare a navigation data sheet NAVIGATING ACROSS COUNTRY Rugged terrain and dense vegetation can impose additional difficulties on cross country navigation In thickly timbered areas visibility is often reduced to 25 m or less and there will be few recognisable landmarks Bad weather with low cloud mist rain or snow can occur requiring reliance on map and compass for cross country navigation The purpose of this topic is to detail important points that will assist with cross country navigation NAVIGATION AIDS If you rely on map reading ability alone without using navigational aids you will ultimately have navigation difficulties This is especially the case in
13. at the creases clear tape can be fixed on the blank side to provide greater stability to the paper during field use eh LEY EA E A rag To fold a map so it will fit neatly into a map case and expose a wider section of the map the opposite applies 1 Fold the map so the long sides are brought together map detail facing outwards 2 Fold the map in half lengthwise 3 Fold the outer edges to the centre ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 14 Learning activity A ctivity 1 You are assigned the role of navigator for a Unit Brigade for an operational activity in the suburbs What information and equipment will you need to gather LeamingactMiiy Activity 2 You are assigned the role of navigator for a search in rugged terrain What information and equipment will you need to gather teaming actNi Y Activity 3 List ways you can prolong the life of a map ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 15 TYPES OF MAPS There are many different types of maps used for navigation purposes Topographic maps and street directories are the most common used for ESA activities while topographic and cadastral or a combination of both are used for firefighting An understanding of how to read each type of map is recommended for those working in these fields Type of Maps 1 UBD Street Directories 2 Topographic Maps 3 Cadastral Maps Block amp Section 4 ACT Em
14. be done in the field or on an map There are many types of magnetic compasses suitable for use in map reading and navigation Although they may differ in shape and size the principle of operation is essentially the same In brief gt Magnetic compasses work on the principle that the pivoting magnetised needle or the north point of the swinging dial to which it is sometimes attached always points to magnetic north Thus a compass with graduations degrees marked on it can be used to measure the bearing of an object from Magnetic North gt On the compass housing is a datum point north and sometimes an aiming point or protrusion along the same line To take a bearing simply rotate the compass until the aiming point or datum point is in the direction of the object To read the bearing read the angle shown between the needle and the datum point either from the swinging dial or the graduations on the compass body Prismatic Compass The operation of the prismatic compass is similar to that described above The box of the prismatic compass is filled with liquid to dampen the movement of the card so it rotates gently and comes to rest quickly A card graduated in degrees is usually fixed to the top of the needle with the 360 mark directly over the north point of the needle The compass is held in a steady position in both hands with a thumb through the ring the lid vertical and the prism turned over in the reading position Looking throu
15. north point of the compass needle points directly along the axis line of the compass ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 103 Position Fixing Compass Resection The following procedure can be used to fix your position when you can recognise features on the ground and on the map but are unable to fix your exact position on the map 1 Select three prominent widely spaced features that you can recognise on the map and on the ground Two features can be used to get an approximate position 2 Using the compass take a magnetic bearing to the first feature 3 Convert the magnetic bearing to a grid bearing 4 Convert the grid bearing to a back bearing and plot this back bearing on the map with a thin line from the feature 5 Carry out the above procedure until you have plotted the back bearings on the map from each of the features you have selected 6 These lines will either intersect to locate your position or form a small triangle of error It is called the Triangle of Error MAG OA 315 GRID OA 326 GRID BACK AO 146 A Triangle of Error your position Magnetic Variation for this diagram is 11 East B MAG OB 87 MAG OC 208 GRID OB 98 GRID OC 219 C GRID BACK BO 278 GRID BACK CO 39 Bearing Calculated and Drawn Resection Tange of error ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 104 ssarning acti Activity 34 In an area defined by your t
16. of the road Distances are measured along the roadway not as the crow flies Navigation is possible First are the odd numbers on the left If so numbers will increase as you travel Find a number this tells you where you are along the road Thus you know if you are traveling in the right direction and how far you must travel Monaro Highway numbers increase as you approach Canberra whereas the numbers will increase as you travel away from Canberra on the Federal Highway A property whose entrance gate is 1892m from the start of Wells Station Road and on the left would be given the address of 189 Wells Station Road A property directly opposite would be 190 Wells Station Road ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 23 ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 24 Operational Maps Under the Incident Control System that is utilised as a management structure in the ACT you may be required to provide an operational map which may be hand drawn or sketched It may be produced to show sector or division boundaries or provide information of assets under threat or damage that has occurred This information is then used to assist in the management if the incident It is essential to understand there are standardized map symbols that have been developed to ensure consistency across the states consent r Vee PROPOSED backburn BACKBURN BURNING IN l a le mom J o
17. please use additional pages if you need them There are also some SELF CHECK tables throughout the document which will ask a series of questions to assist you They will ensure you feel confident and have a good understanding of the learning guide Throughout the learning manual you will see this symbol which will indicate an activity has been planned to assist your learning aS Learning activity ACTIVITY ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 Participant s Notes These notes are to be read in conjunction with the ESA Code of Practice which is available from the Staff Development amp Training Section During this course participants will be trained and assessed in navigation skills for urban and rural environments Who Should Complete the Course Prior to commencing the course participants must be registered with an ESA brigade and be deemed competent at the base level for ACT Rural Fire Service ACTRFS or ACT State Emergency Service ACTSES This course assumes that participants have little prior knowledge or experience of navigation Depending on the individual s previous life skills it may be possible to accelerate through this course However care should be taken to ensure that all participants understand the concepts and can demonstrate the skills required This means that some participants may require further training and assessment For more experienced personnel it is recommended that you look at
18. the assessment workbook then the training manual and work back to identify what skills they may need to refresh or include to be able to complete the assessment Relationship to Competency Standards This Learning Manual covers all the elements of the Public Safety Unit of Competence PUAOPE003B Navigate in Urban and Rural Environments This competency is placed at the Advanced Operator level for ACTSES and the Advanced Fire Fighter level for ACTRFS At the beginning of each section the standard that needs to be reached to achieve the competency is provided these are called elements and performance criteria These make up the competency standard and outline what you will be assessed against Pre requisites The pre requisite for the ACTRFS is to have been deemed competent at the Bushfire Fighter level for 2 years and for the SES to be deemed competent at the Operator level for 2 years Bushfire Fighter Operator e Work effectively in a public safety e Work safely on an incident ground organisation e Work in a team e Have an appreciation of emergency situations e Operate communications systems and Use various techniques to neutralise equipment threats and hazards e Communicate in the workplace e Use and care for Emergency Service equipment e Follow defined OH amp S practices and e Use and care for communications procedures equipment e Prevent injury e Work ina team e Respond to wildfire ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July
19. the earth s surface drawn at a certain date It must therefore be realised that the older the map the less reliable its information will be Man made features may appear or disappear but what will rarely change is the earth s physical features Always look for the date the map was compiled to determine its accuracy and therefore its reliability Care of the Map Maps are valuable documents and should be treated with care to prevent damage This generally occurs when users open them fully out in the open air or in moving vehicles A slight breeze can catch them and start small tears that quickly spread A map should be folded with the aim of reducing it to a size convenient for carrying and also to ensure that a reasonably large area is available for study when two folds are opened like a book Others ways of protecting maps are 1 Laminate maps ideal for office use 2 Roll maps and secure in sturdy cylinders when not in use 3 Use a map case when working in the field 4 Use soft leaded pencils only and soft rubber erasers 5 Use a clear plastic overlay again ideal for office use ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 13 To fold a map 1 Fold it in half long ways with the map detail outwards 2 Fold it in half the other way as in Diagram 1 3 Fold the outer sides to the centre concertina fashion This produces a long narrow exposure of map detail as in a road map Note To avoid deterioration
20. what area of ground can be primarily covered by line of sight from a given point or to determine the profile of the ground between two pints on a map You may be in a vantage point to offer people advice on the ground whether where they are planning to navigate to will be achievable Examples of this are gt Planning and establishing radio communications particularly VHF from one point to another gt Assessing the area of observation from a fire tower lookout In simple cases an inspection of the map may show clearly whether or not intervening higher ground exists between the points under consideration Obvious obstructions other than intervening higher ground may be trees or buildings and these must be taken into account Where intervisibility is not certain by inspection it is necessary to make a section of the line of sight as explained below A section is a diagram to show the rise and fall of the ground along a line between two points Making a section To make a full section between two points A and B on a contoured map follow the steps below refer to the following page 1 Draw a line on the map between the two points Find the highest and lowest contours cut by the line see Diagram A 2 Lay a straight edge of a piece of paper along the line AB and mark it at points A and B together with the points at which each contour cuts this line Label each mark with its height allowing extra 10 metres for the heights of tre
21. 4 compass a popular type originally designed for use by the British Army Using the compass Because of its unique design the Silva compass is very simple to use The major applications and uses of the compass are detailed in the following paragraphs To take a grid bearing The procedure for calculating a grid bearing from a map is as follows refer to the diagram on the following page Step 1 Place the long edge of the compass plate along the desired bearing along line AB in the diagram below making sure the direction arrow on the compass plate points in the direction you wish to travel Step 2 Turn the compass housing so that the meridian lines are parallel with the Eastings on the map and the meridian arrow points north Step3 Read the grid bearing on the housing where the index line intersects it ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 76 Note The bearing that has been calculated is a grid bearing This bearing must be converted to a magnetic bearing if it is to be set on the compass Image supplied by TASMAP teaming actMiy Activity 27 Calculate grid bearings using the Silva compass from grid references provided by your Trainer ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 77 To take a magnetic bearing The procedure for taking a magnetic bearing to an object is detailed below 1 Hold the compass flat in the palm of the hand in a horizontal position with the dir
22. ACT STATE EMERGENCY SERVICE NAVIGATE IN URBAN AND RURAL ENVIRONMENTS Copyright 2003 Public Safety Industry Training Advisory Board All rights reserved This training resource kit has been developed and produced through a collaborative approach between various State and Territory bodies within the Public Safety Industry as part of the national industry project This work is copyright however all parties involved in the national project have full rights in using this Training Resource Kit In addition permission is given to trainers and assessors to make copies by photocopying or other duplicating processes for use within their own training organization or in a workplace where the training is being conducted This permission does not extend to the making of copies for use outside the immediate training environment for which they are made or the making of copies for hire or resale to third parties For permission outside of these guidelines apply in writing to the National Public Safety Industry Training Advisory Board The National Public Safety Industry Training Advisory Board does not give warranty nor accept any liability in relation to the content of this work Several of the images in this document have been kindly supplied by TASMAP ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 3 Australian Capital Territory Emergency Services Authority Learning Manual Navigate in Urban and Rural Environments ACT State
23. ERENCE On the bottom of GRID ZONE DESIGNATION TO GIVE A STANDARD REFERENCE ON THIS SHEET TO NEAREST 100 METRES topographic map the grid 700 000 METRE SaUARE SAMPLE Por A Urayarra FICAT referencing system IS aeaa 1 Read letters identifying 100000 metre square in which the point lies FA i 2 Locate first VERTICAL grid line LEFT of point and read LARGE figures explained labelling the line in either top or bottom margin 69 3 Estimate tenths from grid line to point 4 Locate first HORIZONTAL grid line BELOW point and read LARGE This provides the Grid Zone designation an identifier for the map within the grid zone figures labelling the line in either the left or right margin 91 5 Esumate tenths from grid line to point 7 SAMPLE REFERENCE FA695917 IGNORE the SMALLER figures and a reminder of how a co ak om aid wee Gel a If reporting beyond 18 in any direction a for finding the full co prefix Grid Zone Designation as 55HFA695917 ordinate reference should be ordinates Use only the LARGER figures of the grid reported number example 356000 Thirteen Figure Grid Reference While not all Units Brigades will be required to use thirteen figure grid references the following information would be an advantage to know The thirteen figure grid reference is an extension of the six figure Australian Map Grid AMG grid referencing system i e Eastings and Northings are used to identify a f
24. Each division is divided into numbered sections Block Each section is divided into numbered blocks There is usually one residential lease for each block i iY RBAN SERVICES ACT Land Information Centre Copynght ACT Government 2000 MAP INFORMATION CURRENT December 2000 Because the book is loose leaf each map has a title block with information relative to that map The scales of the maps vary according to the density of the development Parts of the inner city areas are displayed ata scale of 1 to 2500 in suburban areas the scale is usually 1 5500 1 6500 or 1 7500 while in the eae a a less developed areas a scale of 1 10 000 is SCALE 1 10000 used It is important to recognise that no map is ever PIALLIGO up to date On the PALM maps the title block See User s Note on the Contents Page includes the date at which the information was nap 1820 current Robert Dixon s ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 20 p 7 16 15 18 1 AEAU bi Vrrlre 3 43312 A great deal of information is shown ina small area The block numbers are in black while the street addresses are shown in red In the commercial areas building names are included As these are likely to change over time it is important to check the street address as well x las ENLARGEMENT In the outer areas only block numbers are o nate f provided pe AI ff These are not the same as rural addresses
25. Emergency Service July 2004 ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 Table of Contents Title Page MOJOU q Maes akan re terete eee REESE ETERS aN SESEO LEELEE 5 Participant SN OLOS oe ieee aa aa aa a aN aaae aaaea NeT 6 SECTION ONE Map Reading titcswa ius eseseecasssascescressese iss 9 Session 1 Map GCharacteriStes c1ccrdssccadesecdisid Maine 10 SECTION TWO Reading Topographic Maps sesseseseseeresesrerrreeeen 29 Session 2 Grid References csceeceeeeeeceeeeeeeeeeeeneeeeeenees 30 Session 3 Scale and Measuring Distance 0 0seeeeeeeeees 41 Session 4 Shape of the Ground Gradients and Intervisibility 45 SECTION THREE Compasses and BearingS 0c0ceeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 59 Session 5 The Compass Bearings and Back Bearings 60 Session 6 Magnetic Variations cccccccecee ese eeeeeeeeeeeeaeeeaaes 68 Session 7 Using THEGOMPaSs secs ess bash sGe Se eeacchseseesh sees 73 SECTION FOUR Navigation and Planning s ececeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 83 Session 8 Navigation Across Country 0ceeceeeeeeeeeeeeees 84 Session 9 Pacing Judging Distance ccccecec cece ee eeeeeenes 95 Session 10 Position Finding by Resection ceceeeeeeeees 101 APPENDIX 1 Navigation Data Sheet ACT Rural Fire Service amp ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 July 2004 ACT State Emerg
26. The Grid System Topographic maps are the main map we use in the rural area as they show topography and landforms Maps are provided with a system of horizontal and vertical lines called grid lines The ground distance represented between the grid lines that form the squares is usually quoted in the marginal information of the map Grid lines run vertically and horizontally They are numbered at each end and every tenth line is in heavier print On some maps grid lines are also numbered at various places along their length Maps are printed so that north is at the top of the sheet To assist the user when giving grid references grid lines are further defined as follows Eastings The vertical grid lines which run from bottom to top or south to north and divide the map from west to east are known as Eastings Their value increases towards the east Northings The horizontal grid lines which run from left to right or west to east and divide the map from south to north are known as Northings Their value increases towards the north The squares that are formed where Eastings and Northings cross are known as grid squares Ona 1 100 000 map they represent an area of 100 hectares or 1 square km The distance along one side of a grid square should be equal to the primary division on the linear bar On a 1 100 000 topographic series map the ground distance represented between the grid lines is 1 000 metres or km ACT State Emergency Se
27. There may be occasions when it will be necessary to alter the direction of travel in order to avoid a major obstacle Traveling around the obstacle by a series of right angles best does this To carry out this manoeuvre with most compasses it necessitates altering the compass setting by 90 each time a change in direction is required With the Silva compass this can be done without any alterations to the original compass setting simply by taking advantage of the right angles of the compass plate and sighting along its short edge as shown in the diagram below Note Pacing must be maintained throughout the manoeuvre N Os WE n gt Sighting to obj re SWAMP y WE 90 eti 90 paces Avoiding an obstacle Silva compass Compass Errors When using a magnetic compass you should be aware of the two main causes of variation in compass readings Individual compass error gt Each compass has its individual variation that is it does not point exactly to Magnetic North This error may be negligible or comparatively large and therefore it is important to have compasses checked regularly and this variation allowed for when used ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 81 Local magnetic attraction gt Local magnetic attraction is due to the presence of iron or iron ore nearby The compass is a delicate instrument and quite small quantities of iron have a surprisingly large effect on its behaviour A wristwatch or steel fra
28. a street look in the index identify the street name and suburb in the alphabetical listing Note the map number and reference letter and number and turn to the appropriate page Trace down from the letter on top of the page then across from the number at the side of the page the street is located inside the square where the letter and number reference intersect Street directory map symbols are usually located near the index If a road passes through more than one square then you may need to ensure this information is passed on To locate Pedley Place Richardson go to the Street Index 1 Find Pedley Place Richardson The UBD reference is Map 98 P 2 urn to Map 98 Find P along the top Search down between the grid lines either side of P 5 Go down until you reach the gridlines above and below the number 2 POD 6 This will give you the general vicinity of Pedley Place At each edge there is a tab which indicates the adjoining map The map number on the corner refers to the diagonally adjacent map ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 17 Learning activity A ctivity 4 Using a UBD Street Directory indicate the Map Number and Reference for the street indicated by your Trainer Map Number Reference Learning activity Activity 5 The Trainer will provide you with a Map Number and Reference what is the name of the street Learning activity Activity 6 Using the index at the back
29. aming acti Activity 15 List the two methods used to express scale on a map ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 44 Measuring Distances on a Map There are many ways of measuring distance on a map by using dividers a length of string a ruler etc Two simple methods using a strip of paper are described below Measuring Straight Distance Record the distance between the two points on a piece of paper string ruler or with dividers and then place one mark on a division line of the scale bar to the right of the zero so that the other mark falls on the smaller divisions to the left of zero The total ground distance between the measured points is then the distance shown on the scale bar to the right of zero plus that to the left This figure is not truly represented on the ground and is only a guide as it does not take into account slope etc In the figure below the distance is 3 000 metres 300 metres giving a total of 3300 metres or 3 3 km ass Sie Measuring a straight distance teaming atv Activity 16 Select two landmarks on a map and measure the distance between them ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 45 Measuring Distance along a Road Consider the road as a number of straight or nearly straight sections and record these as a continuing measurement on the edge of a piece of paper The total distance by road is then recorded as a straight line and can be read
30. and gt Contours ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 47 Hachures This method may be used in sketch maps Hachures show rising ground by a shading of fine lines down the line of the slope and are heaviest on the steepest slopes They give a good impression of the shape of the ground but they have two great disadvantages gt They do not show exact information regarding height only the illusion of height and therefore heights and slopes cannot be measured gt The hachure lines tend to obscure other detail on the map ae ae NS FOE PWC v Pur SS Hachures ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 48 Hill shading Hill shading shows by darkness of colour what hachures show by lines The shading may be applied so that colours darken as the ground rises or it may be applied as if the light was coming from one direction so that one side of a hill is shown in a lighter shade than the other to give greater definition Hill shading is sometimes used as well as contour lines Image supplied by TASMAP Contours The most usual way of showing relief is by the use of contour lines Contours not only give a representation of height but also indicate the shape of the ground The idea of a contour is simple It is an imaginary line drawn on a map joining all places of equal height above a fixed datum or reference line usually sea level Image supplied by TASMAP ACT
31. ap When working from a grided map all bearings plotted from the map are referred to as grid bearings and not true bearings even though they may only differ by a small amount The difference between GN and TN is called the grid convergence and its value is shown in the north point s diagram Magnetic north MN To say that a compass points north is only relatively true because a compass needle does NOT point to the North Pole It points to the magnetic pole which differs from the North Pole Its position varies slightly from year to year The direction a compass needle points when freely suspended is known as magnetic north ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 64 Bearings The purpose of a bearing is to give an accurate indication of the direction of one point from another A bearing is the angle measured clockwise that a line makes with a fixed zero line Unless stated otherwise the zero line is always taken to be north gt If you are standing at point O and the bearing of A is 30 it means that the line OA makes an angle of 30 with the north south line gt The essential point to remember is that bearings are always measured clockwise from north and therefore bearings of any direction to the east of the north south line fall between 0 and 180 gt Bearings of any direction to the west of the north south line fall between 180 and 360 Bearings The following
32. c variation or magnetic declination for that particular place As GN is used in preference to TN it is more useful to know the size of the angle between GN and MN This is called the grid magnetic angle GMA and its value is shown in the north points diagram below The position of the magnetic pole is not fixed it moves slightly from year to year Consequently the direction of magnetic north and therefore the magnetic variation also changes by a small amount each year Though this change is not constant it can be forecast with sufficient accuracy over a number of years and details of the annual change are given in the marginal information Note carefully whether the annual change has to be added or subtracted If the annual change is the same direction as the magnetic variation it must be added if they are opposite directions the annual change must be subtracted Easterly variation Westerly variation TN GN mo MN hii GRID GRID CONVERGENCE CONVERGENCE E GRID MAGNETIC GRID MAGNETIC ii ANGLE 14 5 ANGLE 4 TRUE NORTH GRID NORTH AND MAGNETIC TRUE NORTH GRID NORTH AND MAGNETIC NORTH ARE SHOWN DIAGRAMMATICALLY NORTH ARE SHOWN DIAGRAMMATICALLY FOR THE CENTRE OF THIS MAP MAGNETIC FOR THE CENTRE OF THIS MAP MAGNETIC NORTH IS CORRECT FOR 1991 AND MOVES NORTH IS CORRECT FOR 1995 AND MOVES EASTEARLY ABOUT 0 1 EVERY THREE YEARS EASTERLY ABOUT 0 1 EVERY TWO YEARS North points ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 70
33. cuments Participants who are deemed competent at the completion of this nationally recognised ESA training programme will be issued with a Statement of Attainment recognising their competency for PUAOPE003A Navigate in Urban and Rural Environments ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 NAVIGATE IN URBAN AND RURAL ENVIRONMENTS SECTION ONE MAP READING Element Performance Criteria 1 Determine current location 1 1 Incident and or task location destination and resources requirements are obtained 1 2 Relevant maps and navigation equipment are gathered and checked 1 3 Cartographic information and navigation techniques are applied to plot positions on a map and determine current location and destination within accepted tolerances ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 10 SESSION 1 MAP CHARACTERISTICS Learning Outcomes for this session e Outline aims of map reading and navigation e Explain how to care for the map e Locate positions on a map Street Directory e List the various types of maps that people would be required to navigate from e Identify various types of maps and their purpose e Identify the marginal information on a map e Describe common map symbols WHAT IS MAP READING AND NAVIGATION The aims of map reading and navigation are to gt Enable you to find your way around th
34. cy Service Version 1 1 July 2004 91 Planning It is essential that before setting off on a course detailed planning be carried out Particular aspects that should be undertaken are outlined in the following paragraphs Proper planning can alleviate the chance of anything going wrong and if the inevitable happens you know where you have come from and are able to re trace and counteract any problems Know where you are going and why what is your objective and what are you trying to achieve This all needs to be documented as there may be lesson which you can improve or learn from Map Study This was mentioned previously as the essential preliminary to planning In deciding the best route from one point to another the following factors should be considered FACTOR CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING Grain of the country gt Itis physically easier to follow the grain of the country than to go against it therefore a direct route in the form of a straight line is practical only in relatively flat open country gt There is minimal grain of the country in mountainous terrain Ridges gt The vegetation along ridges is generally less dense than in valleys gt In addition to this there are often animal tracks making it is easier to travel on ridges rather than in valleys gt Ridges provide useful observation of surrounding landmarks Rivers gt While rivers are useful aids to direction keeping it is generally not wise to fo
35. d references Can you look at a map and determine the shape of the ground Can you measure gradients and make sections Can you explain the reason grid zone junctions occur gt If you have answered YES to all of the questions above you are ready for the next topic gt If you have answered NO to any question ask your trainer for help gt If you don t feel confident with an activity you may want to go back and review it ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 59 ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 60 NAVIGATE IN URBAN AND RURAL ENVIRONMENTS SECTION THREE COMPASSES AND BEARINGS Element Performance Criteria 1 Determine current location destination and resources 1 3 Cartographic information and navigation techniques are applied to plot positions on a map and determine current location and destination within accepted tolerances ACT Rural Fire Service amp ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 July 2004 61 SESSION 5 THE COMPASS BEARINGS AND BACK BEARINGS Learning Outcomes for this session e State the points of a Compass e State the North Points e Use a Protractor to plot a bearing on a map e Use a Protractor to measure a bearing on a map e Explain how to calculate a back bearing Introduction Grids scales and contours provide a standard way of describing a location Di
36. diagram emphasis s how the angle of the bearing is always measured clockwise thus bearing OD is 225 Bearings ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 65 Protractors To take a grid bearing on a map accurately use a protractor All bearings taken with a protractor are grid bearings This is mainly used in incident rooms and to gain a more accurate account of the information being provided form the field There are many different types of protractors available and although they differ in design and shape they are used in much the same way Most protractors are made of a clear solid plastic material or wood with a thin plastic veneer They may be circular semicircular or rectangular in shape The outer edge of the protractor is graduated in degrees from 0 to 360 clockwise Situated in a suitable position on the protractor is a north line and a centre point or hole Protractors are very simple to use To take a grid bearing from the road junction at point O to the power line at point B using the protractor to take a grid bearing on a map proceed as follows 1 Using a straight edge anda fine pencil join O and B as in the diagram below If the distance between the two points is small it is advisable to extend the line through the object to which the bearing is to be taken to ensure the line is visible when the protractor is positioned on the map and that it crosses an Easting 0 mi C123 hy
37. e Map Grid of Australia MGA94 Places with the same grid reference may be up to 200 metres apart Official maps and other good quality maps show the standard in the title block and scale diagram as part of the marginal information The MGA94 is one grid coordinate system based on the Universal Transverse Mercator projection and the Geocentric Datum of Australia GDA 1994 The unit of measure is the metre The Australian Geodetic Datum AGD66 AGD88 was established before satellite techniques were available and was based on a model of the Earth that best suited the Australian region at the time GDA94 is based on an international model which best fits the shape of the whole earth Coordinates on the earth s surface change approximately 200 metres in a north easterly direction with the new datum GDA94 The exact distance and direction of the change will vary slightly from area to area The MGA94 is based on an international standard so it is suitable for satellite navigation instruments such as GPS The majority of new 1 25 000 maps and the 1 100 00 Bushfire Council map are in MGA94 and this is becoming the standard in the field ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 36 When reporting a grid reference based on the old grid system AMG add Alpha at the end of the coordinates For a grid based on the new system MGA add Mike A Ancient e g GR 982415 ALPHA M Modern e g GR 982415 MIKE UNIVERSAL GRID REF
38. e country and city area and to recognise features on the ground and on the map gt Enable you to understand the information on the map so that you can picture the ground and its possibilities and limitations even though you have not seen them and gt Assist you to transmit information quickly and accurately Why Should You Acquire This Skill Map reading and navigation is an integral part of any ESA response As an ESA team member at any time you must be able to gt Determine your location where you are now destination where you are going and resources what you have or will need to get there gt Determine and plan a safe route how you will get there whether through bush or by roads gt Navigate to the destination get there which may require you to re plan your route as you experience changes in the environment change course and gt Report and keep records of your journey The skill will allow you to extract information shown on a map including the relationship of the ground to the map and map to ground In addition to making full use of a map you must be able to give and read grid references take compass bearings and measure distance All of these will be covered in this learner s guide ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 11 Where do I apply this skill In ESA procedures a briefing is normally given to the members by the Commander or the Captain of the brigade stating th
39. e team s crew role and its area of operation Tasks are assigned to members of the team brigade one of them being navigator Once assigned the navigator procures the correct equipment e g maps compasses etc to enable them to do their job The navigator should commence their task immediately by preparing a route plan prior to the team brigade moving out and should navigate from the moment the team brigade leaves the base of operations until the team brigade reaches its destination It is important that the navigator keeps a written record of the route and other necessary information in case the situation changes and an alteration of course become necessary Likewise all records regarding the operation should be filed and kept should a Police inquiry or coronial inquest into the operation ensue Using Your Map Reading Skills ESA Units respond to emergencies in all areas urban rural and in remote locations Therefore you might be required to gt Map the effects of a wind storm or flood damage Navigate to a remote fire Navigate in difficult terrain Plan roadblocks and evacuation routes Plan for and navigate during a land search and or rescue Vv Vv Y V WV Plan set up field or support headquarters or find an appropriate place for a landing pad Where you are now ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 12 MAP READING What is a map A map is a plan of the ground a picture of
40. eV 2078 2083 4 2085 2080 38 2077 t L21 49 88 2060 2062 x x ke ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 21 ACT Emergency Service Bureau Operational Atlas It has long been recognised that every vehicle attending to an incident should have on board maps to assist in responding to incidents and to provide support in the initial phase of an incident Issues with supply of folded topographic maps meant that we had to develop a more effective product An A3 format long edge spiral bound was selected The maps are arranged in street directory fashion and are in two forms topographic and orthophoto The information shown in based on the best available data from both the ACT and NSW Governments The maps are at 1 50 000 scale and show a one kilometre grid on the Map Grid Australia allowing 6 figure grid references to be used ACT ESB OPERATIONAL ATLAS 1 50 000 WARS 7E 79 omy Ed 5 rat k WALKER HILL 645 i Taw i f f 4 a e P 4 4 4 D ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 22 Land Management Agency specific maps Forest Plantations are divided into Blocks which cover around 10 square kilometers Each of these is divided in to compartments the basic area used for planning and planting There are 10 to 30 compartments per block Compartments are surrounded by access roads but rarely have roads through them This makes them the
41. eature on a map All AMG maps will have full values for Eastings and Northings located at the corners of the map To fully understand how the thirteen figure grid reference is derived we shall first look at the Universal Grid Block system on the next page Calculating the thirteen figure grid reference The calculation of the thirteen figure grid reference uses the world map numbering sequence in addition to the six figure reference Once the map number is determined identify the grid square that the feature is in and then estimate or calculate the tenths The grid reference figure has Eastings first followed by the Northings ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 37 The Universal Grid Reference System The Universal Grid Reference System is explained on the bottom of most maps and indicates where a particular map fits into the world s series of maps mo fhe et EK ARRES Geen it Ltt tt pa ye Petes el U A Ba SR A Bar TCT TTA GEEEPAREESRESEEe COA NN Cee Tae ee a HH HH Raezegasger ee ereseaeaezanaege ane MTL NEN Pasta Ts a oT al aofi tafunata wher vale fanke 22ra foa lza fastan fanfea ae ai 22 23 34 05 26 30 faa me foafen az fea foa on on a fanfon s0 ss sz 50 55 657 se sa ao Universal Grid Reference System Reading from left to right the map indicated in the diagram above is the 49n map of 60 across the world sector of maps numbered from the International Dateline and
42. ection arrow pointing to the object Rotate the compass housing until the red meridian arrow is directly beneath the red north end of the compass needle Read the magnetic bearing on the housing where the index line intersects it Taking a magnetic bearing Silva compass Setting the compass to walk on a magnetic bearing 7 Set the magnetic bearing on the compass by rotating the compass housing until the required bearing is in line with the index line on the compass plate Holding the compass level in the palm of your hand turn around until the red end of the compass needle points to the meridian arrow on the compass housing and is parallel to the meridian lines The direction arrow now points along the required magnetic bearing ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 78 For night movement Some compasses have luminous marks such as the needlepoint two dots on the compass face and the index line and directional arrow and can therefore be used when navigating at night Line the needlepoint between the two dots on the compass face and walk on the index line and directional arrow Shine a torch on the luminous settings if the compass is difficult to read Maintaining Direction Using A Compass When moving through dense vegetation it is important that continuous checks be made using the compass gt The best method for maintaining a given magnetic bearing is to select a prominent object suc
43. ed by TASMAP ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 50 Representation of height Fixing the height above sea level at selected points shows height without reference to shape Three common methods are described below in order of accuracy Bench mark Trigonometrical trig stations Spot elevation gt Usually a permanent mark cut into a stone built into a wall or on the side of a triangulation pillar the position and height is calculated from Trigonometrical stations The height given is the height of the mark and not the level of the ground It is represented as BM 94 Most accurate these are usually shown on maps and are defined on the ground by a mark in a concrete block under a survey beacon It is represented as N5 Less accurate heights and are without a definite mark on the ground Selected to indicate the height of the ground at points such as tops of hills Accuracy will vary but are as accurate as the contours It is represented as 186 ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 Physical features 51 Some common terms for the various physical features shown on a map are listed below and illustrated on the next page Basin An area of reasonably level ground surrounded or nearly surrounded by hills or an area drained by a river and its tributaries Crest The highest part of a hill or mountain range That line on a range of
44. ences provided by your trainer practice using a protractor to plot a bearing ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 68 Back Bearings A back bearing gives the direction from the object back to the point of observation It is clear from the example that the difference between the bearing and the back bearing is 180 Therefore given the bearing to find the back bearings add 180 or if the bearing is more than 180 subtract 180 Back bearings So if the bearing to the object is greater than 180 subtract 180 to get the back bearing If the bearing to the object is less than 180 add 180 to obtain the back bearing teaming at Y Activity 23 You have been proceeding on a magnetic bearing of 215 degrees and need to return to your original location What bearing will you now walk on tearing actMiy Activity 24 You have been walking on a magnetic bearing of 25 degrees and need to return to your original location What bearing will you now walk on ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 69 SESSION 6 MAGNETIC VARIATION Learning Outcomes for this session e Demonstrate the calculation of Magnetic variation e Explain converting grid bearings to magnetic bearings e Demonstrate converting magnetic bearings to grid bearings Magnetic Variation and Grid Magnetic Angle The angle between the magnetic north line and the true north line at any place is the magneti
45. ency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 Introduction Read through this learning manual carefully The skills and knowledge covered in each session will help you to develop competence in this unit Talk to your Trainer Assessor and agree on how to organise your training Work through all the information and complete the activities in each session They will support you and show you the correct way to do things Listen take notes ask questions and practice your new skills on the job or in a simulated workplace environment Make sure you practice your new skills regularly That way you will improve both your confidence and performance Ask your Trainer Assessor when you are ready to watch you perform the activities outlined in this learning manual and ask for feedback on your progress Acknowledgements The Emergency Service Authority ESA acknowledges the assistance of the Australian National Training Authority and Fire amp Emergency Services Authority of Western Australia who provided much of the material used in this publication Several of the images in this document have been kindly supplied by TASMAP Learning Activities There are a number of Learning Activities to help you develop the skills and knowledge you need to achieve competence in this course They may ask you to answer questions discuss issues with your Trainer Assessor or find information Space is provided for written answers to exercises and activities but
46. er giving you the same result With The Southern Cross And The Pointers Visible Method 1 If the stars are visible extend the long axis of the Southern Cross from its tail by 4 1 2 times its length this point is almost directly above true south Method 2 Draw an imaginary line to join the two Pointers and then bisect that line with another at right angles to it The direction of the South Pole will then be the intersection of that line and that which is a prolongation of the long axis of the Southern Cross 4 x Axis Southern Cross Pointers Finding south using the Southern Cross ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 90 Navigation Under Special Conditions Navigating can be very difficult and you may face extreme conditions The weather may be overcast and you can experience low cloud which will give reduced visibility in the higher altitudes Snow may be present which changes the appearance of the landscape even thick vegetation after re growth from a bushfire may present a difficulty Southern slopes will be wetter and more slippery whereas the northern aspect will be drier and more exposed You need to factor all of these potential conditions into your planning when navigating Thick Vegetation i e Wet Sclerophyll Forest Close country navigation is characterised by limited visibility and a slow rate of movement thick vegetation often prevents the distinguishing of landmarks Any track or
47. ergency Service Bureau Operational Atlas Topographic Cadastral 5 Land Management Agency specific maps 6 Rural Addressing Corio System 7 Operational maps UBD Street Directories All ESA vehicles should contain a Street Directory the standard for ACTRFS amp ACTSES personnel is the UBD Street Directory It is vital that all ESA personnel are able to read and interpret street directories so they are able to navigate their vehicle to the incident site Most ESA vehicles have a navigator who sits alongside the driver Their role is to select the most appropriate and efficient route to the incident site ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 16 To provide consistency when providing grid references it is recommended that Units Brigades use the latest UBD Directory Most street directories have information relating to the location of suburbs and street names All of this information is found in the index located in the front of the street directory It is vital when locating a street name that you identify the correct spelling of the street name because some have similar spelling and you may find yourself in the wrong street Also ensure that the suburb is correct as some street names are used several times but in separate suburbs Not all letters are used in page references as O and are missing Each grid cell is 250m by 250m and is tied into the UTM grid AMG66 Locating a Street Name and Suburb To find
48. erved Built up area Route marker National Highway National Route State Route Major road paved with Metroad marker unpaved Secondary road paved unpaved Minor road paved unpaved Vehicular track Stock grid Floodway Four wheel drive track Gate Walking track Road tunnel Culvert Bridge Railway heavy Station Tunnel Railway light Road underpass Landmark feature Stockyards Mine Water tank or reservoir Ground tank or dam Survey landmark with height Spot height Contours Depression contours Cliff with relative height Rocky pinnacle Quarry or gravel pit Levee or dyke Closed forest 80 100 crown cover Open forest 50 80 crown cover Woodland 20 50 crown cover Pine forest Orchard plantation or vineyard Mangrove Power transmission line 33kV and above Cableway Pipeline water Pipeline other Perennial lake Intermittent lake Land subject to inundation Wet swamp Dry swamp Intertidal flat Sand Intermittent stream with waterfall Perennial stream Large dam or weir Ferry route Lighthouse or beacon Breakwater Jetty or wharf Slipway Anchorage Wreck Rock shelf Reef Rocky shoreline Rock bare or awash Building small Building large Homestead Hospital Telephone exchange Place of worship Ambulance station Police station Emergency headquarters Fire station School Post office Electricity substation small Electricity substation large BOUNDARIES Local government State
49. es where necessary In addition mark creeks and crests see Diagram B 3 Ona separate piece of paper draw a graph of sufficient equally spaced parallel lines so that each line represents a contour or height value Number these lines in sequence according to their contour value Allow one value higher than the highest point and one value below the lowest point on the section line AB 4 Draw perpendicular lines down from the marks made in Step 2 to its corresponding contour height 5 Make a mark on each parallel line where it cuts the perpendicular sent from the marked piece of paper corresponding to its height on the line AB Join these marks with a smoothly curved line allowing for the general slope of the ground between contours at the bottom of valleys and the tops of hills The slopes will be exaggerated depending on the ratio of the map scale to the vertical height scale selected but otherwise the section will give an accurate representation of the surface of the ground along the line AB ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 56 This calculation does not take into consideration the height of trees or vegetation rather it is only a representation of the height of the ground If only visibility of A to B is required a hasty section showing hilltops only will suffice It is constructed in the same manner as a full section except that high points only are marked The use of squared graph paper makes the draw
50. featureless country in thick vegetation or in poor visibility The more common aids you can use may be divided into those for position finding direction finding and distance traveled These are Maps Aerial Photographs GPS Magnetic Compass Sun and Analogue Watch Improvised Compasses Stars VVVVVVV Position Finding Maps A map is the single most important navigational aid and as such should be carefully studied before and during navigating to cross country This study will provide the answer to many questions such as the best route to be taken and areas to be avoided It also enables you to visualise the lie of the land to assist your sense of direction and to increase your confidence Aerial photographs Aerial photographs provide a valuable check to map reading when they are available ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 86 GPS Global Positioning System The Global Positioning System is a worldwide radio navigational system that uses a network of 24 satellites and their ground stations to calculate position Reference points can be accurate to a matter of metres The GPS device usually a hand held receiver is only an aid to navigation The navigator must accurately enter data into the receiver for it to be of any use It should never be relied on to do all the navigating for you GPS Functions Some of the general functions of a GPS receiver are Determine ground speed Plot current p
51. gency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 19 Cadastral Maps Canberra by Suburbs Cadastral maps are based on land ownership information In the days of staking claims a cadastral survey followed occupation and the map was drawn to show which property belonged to whom Today the term is used to refer to maps which show subdivision details The block and section maps are cadastral maps These maps show the subdivision of land with each area identified by its own individual number e g Block amp Section number In most cases the boundary of the property is actually the fence line The Canberra by Suburbs is a large scale map series which shows every block of land in urban areas and provides other detailed information Every block of land is shown with a street address The advantages of the Canberra by Suburbs maps over the street directories are the larger scale means that individual blocks and house numbers can be shown these may be helpful where the house number sequence is not consecutive and where there are battle axe blocks They will also show proposed developments Common terms used District The ACT is divided into 18 named districts e g Weston Creek Canberra Central North Canberra South Canberra and Gungahlin etc Division Each district in the developed areas is divided into named Divisions Each suburb is in a different division Open space areas adjacent to a suburb are also part of the division Section
52. gh the prism line up the object with the hair line in the centre of the prism slot and read off the bearing on the card against the hair line It helps if your hands or elbows can be rested against a wall or some other nonferrous object Some clear plastic compasses can be used in ways similar to the prismatic as the user sights through a lens and lines up a hairline on the object to which the bearing is required ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 75 Silva Compass The Kjellstrom brothers developed the Silva compass in Sweden during the 1930s Although initially designed for the sport of orienteering the compasses are now used widely throughout the world by sN Romer emergency services and many other organisations as a general purpose Moodie Wend red compass Directional arrow and P Luminous mark Although other manufacturers now produce similar rigid clear plastic compasses the name Silva will be used as a generic name in this learning resource to describe this type of compass Housing 36012 Meridian lines There are many different types of Silva compasses available However the basic construction for all types remains the same The compass enables the user to plot and calculate bearings rapidly and accurately on a map without the use of a protractor by combining on a common base plate both a compass and a protractor The diagram above shows the major components of the type
53. h as a tree which lies on the bearing and move to it Then select another object on the bearing and move to that Continue with this method until the destination is reached If it is impossible to find a prominent object on the bearing send another person forward a visual distance correct this person onto the bearing and then proceed to them Repeat this procedure until the destination is reached In a larger team leap frogging of personnel can be beneficial to the continuous movement of the team In this instance send out one or two marker personnel the second traveling further ready to be aligned when the team arrives at the first point ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 79 Back bearings Unlike most other types of compasses there is no requirement to calculate back bearings with the Silva compass If you are marching on a given bearing and wish to return to your original start point simply turn around to face roughly in the direction from which you have come and reverse the compass so that the direction arrow points towards you see Diagram Orient the compass by turning its whole body until the red end of the compass needle points to the north point on the housing and march in the direction in which the back of the compass plate faces Compass reversed Back bearings Silva compass ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 80 Altering direction to avoid an obstacle
54. hills or mountains from which the ground slopes down in opposite directions Escarpment The steep hillside formed by a sudden drop in the general ground level usually from a plateau Gorge A deep ravine usually with steep sides Knoll A small knob like hill Plateau A tableland An elevated region of considerable extent generally fairly level Ravine A long deep narrow valley worn by a stream Re entrant A valley or ravine usually between two spurs running inward towards the hill or mountaintop Ridge The line along a hill or range of hills or mountains from which the water flows in opposite directions sometimes the crest of a line of hills as it appears along the horizon Saddle A depression between adjacent hills or mountain tops Spur A minor feature generally in the form of a ridge running out from a hill or mountain Undulating ground Ground which rises and falls gently ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 52 SRO W N N N Wy Ni NAS Wy SS gt Image supplied by TASMAP Activity 17 Your trainer will provide you with several grid references and ask you to a Outline convex and concave slopes b Outline land features such as knolls saddles and spurs ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 53 Gradients The slope of the ground may be expressed as the angle the ground makes with the horizontal but more commonly it is referred to as
55. iewer is lying down The object is against a dark background Object seems farther away ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 100 Learning activity Activity 33 From the map provided your trainer will ask you to locate various land features from the map that are visible on the ground ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 101 ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 102 SESSION 10 POSITION FINDING BY RESECTION Learning Outcomes for this session e Demonstrate two methods of orientating the map e Demonstrate how to perform a resection Map Setting and Position Fixing A map is said to be set or orientated when the features on the map are in the same relative position as the features on the ground There are two methods for setting a map By inspection This is the simplest and quickest method of setting a map The procedure is to select objects on the ground that can be identified on the map Turn the map so that the objects on the map are lined up with those on the ground The map is now set or orientated By compass This is by far the most accurate method of setting a map and should be used when it is difficult to identify sufficient detail on the map and on the ground Place the compass on the map over the magnetic variation diagram with the compass axis along the magnetic north line of the diagram Rotate the map and compass until the
56. ignificance or importance private property National Parks recreation areas military facilities and in some cases firing ranges may have restricted or authorised personnel only access limitations on them Under the new ESA legislation these access restrictions are diminished providing the team is acting in good faith in relation to a disaster and the task it has been assigned If a locked gate is found which prevents access follow your chain of command or notify Comcen of your actions It would be wise however to contact the Incident Controller for further approvals before entering any restricted access area such as the Majura Road Firing Range In the case of training or exercise activities which are planned well in advance it is organisational protocol to make contact with the property owners preferably in writing a few weeks prior to the activity to seek permission to enter and use the land The Land management agencies have local protocols for any activities taking place on their land and permission needs to be granted before the exercise occurs If your brigade is planning an activity such as familiarization of a reserve you must apply for the approval as a brigade unit and notify HQ of your actions Learning activity A ctivity 28 Explain the process of gaining access to restricted areas a On training exercises b On operations ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 Navigation Data Sheet Route Ca
57. ing of a section easier and quicker A SUL SSS gee Q gt 340 320 300 280 260 240 220 200 Creek Creek Creek Creek gt 220 Creek Creek 200 S 8 82 88B AS see S ee Er i te Ro S ay Fig 15b Ht 340 320 300 280 260 240 220 200 t Creek Creek Creek 180 Creek 180 200 l ODI R E i 220 Creek 7 200 Creek 200 220 Creek t 220 240 m Images supplied by TASMAP ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 57 Learning activity Activity 20 Your trainer will provide you with several grid references and ask you to a Draw asection or b Estimate the possibility of line of sight from the lay of the land ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 58 SELF CHECK YES NO Did you understand the activity activities you were asked to do Did you have enough time to complete the activity activities Can you explain where you can use your map reading and navigation skill and when might it be needed Can you name and describe the most commonly used map types for emergency service work Can you explain the marginal information including conventional signs on a map Can you interpret different methods of expressing scale on a map Can you measure distance on a map Can you calculate 4 and 6 figure gri
58. le is required for each scale of map Romer scales for a variety of scales are sometimes engraved on protractors and also on the compass plate of some Silva compasses If such a romer scale is not available one can be easily made from a piece of paper overhead transparency film or cardboard marking off the appropriate subdivision of a grid square from the secondary division of the linear scale on the appropriate map ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 41 teaming actNi Y Activity 13 From information provided by your trainer identify 1 A landmark at a particular six figure grid reference 2 Grid references at given locations 6 figure using the romer scale teaming at Activity 15 What information should be transmitted during an operation when you find a map contains a Grid Zone junction ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 42 SESSION 3 SCALE AND MEASURING DISTANCE Learning Outcomes for this session e Explain the methods used to express map scale e Measure distances on a map both on straight lines and along roads The scale of a map is the size relationship between the two points shown on a map and the same two points on the earth s surface Methods of Expressing Scale There are two methods of expressing the scale of a map Representative Fraction RF that is the preferred method and the Linear Scale Representative Fraction RF The numerator of
59. llow them because in rugged country they are winding and usually bordered by dense vegetation Close country gt Movement in this environment is slow and there is a tendency to over estimate distance traveled gt Visibility is limited and the size of features traversed is also over estimated gt Unless experienced the navigator in close country should follow the most direct compass route rather than navigate from feature to feature ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 92 Checking Once a course commences checking of direction and distance as outlined in previous paragraphs must be continuous Additional areas requiring particular attention are covered below gt All features hills and rivers should be checked as they are reached and identified on the map Note the direction of flow of all streams and rivers and check with the map gt Tracks should be identified but should always be regarded with suspicion It is easy to place too much confidence in a track which may not be the one marked on the map The same applies to any manufactured feature especially in dense vegetation Actions If You Become Lost If lost you should not act hastily You should stop and consider gt Whether you have drifted left or right of your line gt Whether you could have already passed the objective or whether the time and distance traveled was badly estimated gt Whether the ground covered conformed
60. logical choice for wildfire containment Foresters also describe local landmarks such as Toolbox Hill the hill where someone once left their toolbox Forestry maps may not always represent what is reflected on the ground i e logging may be taking place so a compartment may be closed off or not accessible Environment ACT maps also develop their own maps such as land ownership and categorize land usage such as Nature Reserve or National Park etc They will also provide site specific information to assist with incident management such as species of significance and sites of interest Rural Addressing ACT s Rural Addresses using the Corio Model The Australian Standard for Rural Addressing has been adopted outside the built up areas of the ACT The old system was Roadside Mail Boxes RMB s which were a sequential number given by the local post office to rural addresses On the ground the numbering appeared random The Corio Model replaces the RMB system and allows you to figure out the location on the ground of any address RMB s are still being used in NSW The Corio system involves rural properties being allocated a number based on the distance the property is from the start of a road Odd numbers are on the left and even numbers are on the right This and the direction in which the numbers increase give you a check if you are going the correct way The number multiplied by 10 is the number of metres from the beginning
61. med spectacles will affect the compass reading Take the precaution of seeing that all iron or steel objects are at a safe distance before using the compass Small articles will be safe in your pocket but larger articles should be placed two or three metres away Remember also to keep well clear of power lines wire fences vehicles and railway lines when using a magnetic compass Listed in Table below are safe distances from common objects COMMON OBJECTS SAFE DISTANCES Transmission high tension lines 80 metres Large vehicles 75 metres Car utility 60 metres Fencing wire concrete 10 metres Pick axe or shovel 3 metres To check for local magnetic attraction 1 2 Select two points about 100 m apart From one take a bearing to the other Then move to the other and take a back bearing to the first The two bearings should differ by 180 back bearing If they do not there is a magnetic disturbance at one point or the other or at both ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 82 Care of the Compass At the completion of activities all equipment should be made ready for storage Maps should have all pencil marks erased and be folded correctly and placed in tubes or a map drawer Compasses should be stored in a soft pouch and lay flat away from metal surfaces A soft spectacle case is ideal for storing a compass The life of the compass can be prolonged by careful use by 1
62. n 1 1 July 2004 39 Grid Zone Junctions In some instances a map can contain more than one grid This occurs when two grid zones within the universal grid reference system join on the one map Larger scale maps rarely see this occurrence however on smaller scale maps junctions are more likely due to greater area of land covered It is recommended when transmitting co ordinates that the grid zone junction and sheet name and edition number are mentioned to alleviate any confusion during an incident 17 i5 fe 1 matt Panime we A gt me ke EA A Grid Zone Junction ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 40 Romer Scales A romer scale is a simple device used for accurately measuring the position of a point within a grid square instead of estimating the tenths as described in the previous paragraphs To use a romer 1 Place the corner of the square against the required point on the map with the edges parallel to the grid lines 2 The distance east and north within the grid square can then be read off against the west and south grid lines of the square 6 FF OB 438 2 1 The 10 division scale on the Romer fits neatly between the grid lines on common scale maps such as 1 50 000 or 1 100 000 N q n N an If the intersection is in grid square 6436 the Romer can be used to give a more precise location 647368 09 18 765 A xal A different romer sca
63. n a minimum and maximum distance that the object could be from the viewing point and then takes the average between the two distances For example it may be decided that a particular object is more than 200 m away but less than 600 m Therefore the distance in this case is estimated to be 400 m Group Average Method When a team of personnel is together the team leader asks each member to estimate the distance to the object The average of these estimations is then taken as the distance If team members are well practiced in judging distances this method is reasonably accurate teaming atv Activity 32 Your trainer will set up a field exercise by placing or nominating specific objects in a defined area You are required to nominate the distances from you to each of the objects ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 99 Conditions that affect judging distance Objects seem closer than they really are when gt gt gt gt The light is bright or the sun is shining from behind the viewer They are bigger than other things around them There is hidden ground between them and the viewer They are higher up than the viewer is lt Object seems closer Objects seem farther away than they really are when gt Vv Vv V WV The light is bad or the sun is in the viewer s eyes They are smaller than other things around them The viewer is looking across a valley or down a ravine or creek The v
64. n easier route may be found the time you take may be longer but the energy and ease in walking may be more efficient To calculate a gradient 1 First measure the horizontal distance on the map between the two points to be traveled For example let s say it is 550 metres in distance Always express the distance in the same unit as the contour interval 2 Count the number of contour lines to be crossed en route and multiply this number by the contour interval distance e g 5 contour lines crossed x 10 metre contour interval This means a climb of 50 metres in the 550 metres to be traveled 3 To calculate the gradient divide the contour interval into the distance to be traveled To use our example divide 50 metres into 550 metres The ratio would be 1 11 Maximum gradient for cross country vehicle use As a guide for successful cross country vehicle use the gradient of a road or track should not be less than 1 6 except for short distances and should never be less than 1 3 this will ensure safety from the vehicle potentially rolling Other training courses are available with more in depth information in regard to this subject Learning activity A ctivity 19 Your trainer will provide you with grid references for two locations from which you will determine the gradients ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 55 Intervisibility Line of Sight Instances may arise where it will be necessary to determine
65. ng GRID BEARING 80 4 76 Conversion Magnetic bearing to Grid bearing westerly variation Example 2 see Diagram B B A grid bearing of 89 is to be M G converted to a magnetic bearing The magnetic variation is 4 west So 89 4 93 which is the magnetic bearing MAGNETIC BEARING 89 4 93 Conversion of Grid bearing to Magnetic bearings westerly variation seaming acti Activity 26 Using map information provided by your trainer calculate the change in magnetic variation over a given timeframe From this information calculate the magnetic bearing between two given locations ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 74 SESSION 7 USING THE COMPASS Learning Outcomes for this session e State how to use a Prismatic compass e Demonstrate how to take a bearing with a Silva compass e Demonstrate how to set a bearing on a Silva compass e Demonstrate how to maintain direction using a Compass e Demonstrate how to plot bearings on a map using a Silva compass e Demonstrate walking a back bearing using a Silva compass e Demonstrate how to negotiate an obstacle using the Silva compass e Explain how to care for and maintain the equipment COMPASSES A compass is a device that can be used to find the direction from one point to another this is essential when you are working as part of a search team or mapping a route for construction of a dozer line this can
66. not often used It is only suitable on maps with a scale of 1 50 000 or larger The 100 metre squares used for determining six figure grid references are each broken down into 10 metres by 10 metre squares to determine an even more accurate location The Eastings reading now comprises the first four figures while the Northing reading comprises the last four figures Learning activity Activity 11 What are the grid lines called and in what order are they read teaming at Activity 12 From information provided by your trainer identify 1 A landmark at a particular six figure grid reference 2 Grid references at given locations 6 figure a b ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 35 Map Grids Another way of describing a grid reference is to use metres instead of degrees minutes and seconds The system uses the distance from a zero point and measures east and north of that point Maps issued by the State Territory and Commonwealth Government since the mid 1990 s use a version of this system which is the Map Grid of Australia MGA94 These maps are easier to read because gt The grid lines are straight and not curves gt The grid lines are based on metres not the less familiar degrees minutes and seconds used for latitudes and longitudes Metric maps issued before the mid 1990 s may be based on the Australian Map Grid AMG66 AMG88 whereas the more recent ones have been produced to th
67. of a Street Directory locate the Map Number and the reference letter and number for the following locations Location Map Number Reference Letter and number Local Post Office Your Local Shed Depot Location of the nearest park oval Nearest Roundabout to your Unit Brigade HQ ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 18 Learning activity Activity 7 Locate the Map Number and the reference letter and number for the locations listed below using the UBD 2003 Edition or as set by your Trainer Location Map Number Reference letter and number Hirst Place Giralang Maltby Circuit Wanniassa Your Street Your Suburb Topographic Map Topographic maps show topography and landforms and also show natural features such as hills rivers forests and swamps Built features are also shown such as roads buildings dams and property lines Each grid square is usually one kilometre square regardless of scale and covers 100 hectare The majority of this Learning Manual deals with how to read and navigate using topographic maps 149 00 00 2 2o00nE 83 a 35 22 30 z y wE E a N E a P f NENG ATEK r Sy 0 S sa A ri H j 6083000 EES i x2 ye rl N SS s E f f NU W NATO KR i j NATO N S K i BULLEN RANGE SY A nat NATURE RESERVE FORSTER Nd 1 Wie iors 688 j Forsipr WAR 82 ACT State Emer
68. of the square 2 Select the Northing that forms the bottom or south boundary of the square 3 The two figures for the Easting and the two figures for the Northing combined give the four figure reference required ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 33 Six Figure Grid Reference This method is much more precise than the four figure method and is used to indicate the position of an object within a grid square A six figure grid reference is given to indicate the boundaries of a fire the location of a roadblock or a helipad To do this imagine each grid square is divided into 100 smaller squares each square being 100 metres by 100 metres You then estimate or calculate which small square the particular object is in The diagram below shows a grid square divided into 100 smaller squares to help explain the procedure The numbering of the lines forming the small squares indicates the number of tenths of a unit there are east of Easting 41 or north of Northing 16 House A is in the small square 413 east and 167 north In other words the Easting is 413 and the Northing is 167 The six figure grid reference to House A is GR 413167 4 KG Nene y 06 WOOLLEYS CORNER 227 Es Es 2 42 43 Building GR 413167 Image supplied by TASMAP ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 34 Eight Figure Grid Reference This method has limited practical use and is
69. off against the scale bar Measuring distance along a road ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 46 SESSION 4 SHAPE OF THE GROUND GRADIENTS AND INTERVISIBILITY Learning Outcomes for this session e State and describe the methods used to draw relief on a map e Calculate the gradient of a hill e Make a section for Line of Sight determination Shape of the Ground Relief Manufactured features such as towns roads and railways occur on the surface of the ground Their details change quite rapidly The shape of the ground often referred to as relief is permanent and determines the nature of the life lived on it the type of things built on it the position of towns and the direction and forms of communications The importance of being able to visualise from the map the shape of the ground is obvious It shows what positions may be suitable for good observation what ground is good for cross country movement etc There are two distinct elements in the representation of relief These are representation of gt Height and gt Shape Representation of height is a factual matter in which the variations will arise from the type and accuracy of the information is provided On the other hand representation of shape may be largely artistic and the methods will vary on different maps Methods of showing relief There are many ways of showing relief on a map including gt Hachures gt Hill shading
70. osition Store your current position as a waypoint Store other positions as waypoints Plot routes traveled Calculate a bearing between the two positions Determine an error left or right of your intended track Determine a range or distance between two positions VV V Vv Vv VV WV Navigation Navigation with a GPS receiver is similar to navigating with a compass in that a map is required with both methods Map reading and navigation skills are vital and the need to plan the route to be traveled still exists A map and compass should be carried at all times when using GPS in remote areas as the receiver is powered by batteries which may fail with prolonged use and other prevailing conditions may interfere with the GPS performance These conditions include Cloud cover Electrical storms Thick vegetation interrupting clear view of the sky Operating inside a building or shed Operating in gorges caves mines or features that obliterate the sky Operating inside a vehicle without external GPS antenna VVVVVV ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 87 Most commercial GPS are accurate to within 50 metres horizontally or 70 metres vertically and therefore are adequate for emergency service use GPS receivers can be programmed to display latitude and longitude readings or grid references The Universal Grid Reference System is used to display grid references Check the User s Manual to determine how
71. ounter can also be used but beware of metallic interference when using the compass The following is an example of how pacing is calculated during navigation gt When pacing you should measure off in 100 metre units up to 1 km and then reassess your position For a 76 centimetre 30 inch pace approximately 657 right footpaces will equal 1 km When estimating distance from the map allow for the rise and fall of the ground Where the measured distance on the map is 1000 metres it will only be accurate if the ground is flat If there is a hill included in the 1000 metres its height will have to be taken into account and the pacing count adjusted for climbing it on one side and going down the other ACT Rural Fire Service amp ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 July 2004 97 LeamingactMiy Activity 31 Your trainer will mark out a hundred metre distance You are to pace the distance three times and record your average walking stride This activity should be done on flat ground and on sloping ground Time Distance can also be calculated from the time in relation to speed of walking in kilometre km per hour For the average person walking over fairly flat country a 76 cm 30 inch pace will result in a speed of about 5km per hour Predicting Walking Time A rule for predicting walking time in Australian conditions is as follows For an average walker carrying a medium pack allow one hour for gt Every 5 km of ea
72. r scale usually at the bottom of the map L Magnetic variation Usually at the bottom right hand side of the map or under the north point diagram ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 27 NEW SOUTH WALES LE VABS x YARROWLUMLA x AUSTRALIAN Comey CAPITAL TERRITORY TO GIVE A STANDARD REFERENCE TO THE NEAREST 100 METRES SAMPLE POINT Coree A 1421 1 Read the letters identifying 100 000 metre square in which the point lies 2 Locate the first VERTICAL grid line LEFT of the point and read the LARGE figures labelling the line in either the top or bottom margin 3 Estimate tenths from the grid line to the point 4 HORIZONTAL grid line BELOW ARGE figures labeling the nein ether heft or right 5 Estimate tenths from the grid line to the point Before giving a grid reference civilian users should state the number and name of this map for example 8627 2N Cotter Dam 646914 ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 Conventional Signs 28 The mapmaker tries to show the objects on the ground in the clearest possible way The objects are shown by simple symbols larger than scale to enable them to be recognised SCALE 1 25 000 1 05 2km CONTOUR INTERVAL 10 METRES COPYRIGHT Land and Property Information NSW 2003 hi osio n yards 3e o Werong 4 1215 86 eH eT sW Lauren 2A P FS sS PO tat OS BS All Rights Res
73. rainer orientate your map using a The inspection method c The compass method teaming at Activity 35 Your trainer will ask you to practice resection in the field ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 105 SELF CHECK YES NO Did you understand the activity activities you were asked to do Did you have enough time to complete the activity activities Can you prepare a route card Can you orientate the map to north in the field Can you conduct a resection Can you maintain direction using a compass Do you know what to do if you become lost gt Ifyou have answered YES to all of the questions above you are ready for assessment gt If you have answered NO to any question ask your trainer for help gt If you don t feel confident with an activity you may want to go back and review it ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 106 Appendix 1 Navigation Data Sheet Localise data Sheet Leg From GR To GR Mag Distance Est Time Pacing Going Remarks Bearing Metres mins Count J 2 3 4 ACT Rural Fire Service amp ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 July 2004
74. rd 94 Before commencing a course the route to be taken should be divided into legs or segments and marked in pencil on the map These legs should terminate at some easily recognisable object not more than one hour s walk apart Having done this the next step is to produce a navigation data sheet or route card for the complete route This sheet illustrated below gives the significant information required for each leg of the overall route This then becomes a ready reference and is of great value Navigation Data Sheet From GR Leg To GR Mag Bearing Distanc e metres Est Time mins Pacing count Going Remarks 1 111459 121464 dam 50 1100 15 a Gentle rise in open country Creeks at 700m and 800m 2 121464 122475 building on track 352 1100 a Undulatin g ground sloping R to L through scattered timber Creek at 800m 3 122475 114474 248 820 10 a Gentle fall through scattered timber b 300m open 4 114474 111459 Malmac Homestead 178 1520 25 a 1100m gentle down hill open b 100m steep rise through med timber c 300m down hill open Creeks at 250m 700m 1000m and 1400m Road on ridge at 1200m ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 95 teaming at Activity 29 List factors to be considered when planning a cross country na
75. rection information can also be obtained from a map to provide a standard way of describing how to get from one point to another The compass the sun and the stars have been standard tools for explorers and seafarers for thousands of years The procedures that they developed are the basis of techniques as modern as satellite navigation Bearings taken in the field using a compass can be used to determine the direction of smoke sightings and to determine various locations of an accident etc The fire towers use the bearing and distance system for a smoke sighting a triangulation is given from the other towers if possible which will give a more precise location These bearings are drawn onto maps using protractors to plot positions Direction North south east and west are the four cardinal points or key points of the compass There are in all thirty two points of the compass but only sixteen are normally used in the map reading The four cardinal points and twelve intermediate points are shown below Points of the compass ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 62 Degree System The points of the compass give a rough indication of direction only For greater accuracy the circle is divided into 360 degrees with o or360 being the north point The four quadrants of the circle are each 90 degrees and therefore the east south and west points are at 90 180 and 270 degrees respectively Each degree is s
76. road marked on a map should be treated with suspicion before using it for searching Quite often tracks may be overgrown while others are created particularly with 4WD movement Consequently recent air photos should be used in navigational planning whenever they are available The most reliable method of navigation is by continuous reference to the compass and by pacing A navigational party must be nominated and if necessary a group average should be used to derive the distance traveled Measured bearings must be strictly followed and the tendency to veer randomly towards easier going should be avoided If obstacles have to be bypassed the route must be deliberately plotted and measured Desert Conditions As most long moves in the desert are conducted in vehicles a magnetic compass is only reliable if the navigator continually dismounts to take bearings because of the magnetic interference As this normally makes movement unacceptably slow Global Positioning Systems GPS may have to be used From a Vehicle Roads and Cross Country A vehicle is normally restricted to roads and tracks except in open areas because of the risk of bogging and puncturing of tires In some instances the roads can be of assistance to navigation but they are often misleading and cause most navigational errors Because the distance is covered at a much faster rate in a vehicle than when walking the ground cannot be examined in detail ACT State Emergen
77. rvice Version 1 1 July 2004 32 Grid References There are four methods used being four six eight and thirteen figure grid references to indicate positions on a grided map The method used depends on the degree of accuracy required by the user and to a large extent the scale of the map being used The basic principle for each method is the same and is explained below The accepted grid reference is a six figure grid reference this will indicate a position on a grided map This will provide a degree of accuracy which is required by the user When giving grid references remember 1 Always deal with eastings first then northings To help you remember this use the following line You have to crawl along the ground before you can climb a tree 2 When working in the field near map borders always include the map sheet number or the map title when transmitting grid references to avoid confusing the number with a similar grid reference on another map 3 Grid references should always commence with the letters GR to show that they are in fact grid references and nothing else 4 Also note that grid numbers on reaching 99 recommence the numbering sequence starting at 01 Four Figure Grid Reference This method indicates the position of one grid square only and is therefore useful when identifying major features and localities To indicate a particular grid square 1 Select the Easting that forms the left or west boundary
78. sy going gt Every 3 km of easy scrambling gt Every 1 km of extremely rough country deep sand soft snow or thick bush gt Plus one hour for every 500 m up and one hour for every 1000 m down For every five hours include up to one hour to allow for fatigue Factors influencing walking time include tiredness weather steep ground conditions underfoot use of a rope using ski poles inappropriate use of crampons spiked iron plates on the bottom of shoes that stop you from slipping poor navigational skills poor route choice fitness and nothing to sight on being lost Factors influencing walking time ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 98 Methods of Judging Distance The four common methods for judging distance are described below Unit of measure method This consists of taking a distance with which the viewer is familiar e g the length of a swimming pool or sports field as the unit and seeing how many units can be fitted in between the viewer and the object This method may be used for distances up to 400 m provided the viewer can see all the ground between the viewing point and the object Appearance method Using this method the viewer judges the distance to an object by comparing its size with that of its surroundings It takes much practice to become expert but under certain circumstances this method can prove extremely valuable Bracketing method With this method the viewer decides o
79. the Representative Fraction that is always quoted as 1 represents the distance on the map the denominator the distance An RF of 1 100 000 therefore means that map distance will be 1 100 000 of that actual ground distance or that a distance of 1 centimetre on the map will be 100 000 centimetres or alternatively 1000 metres or 1 kilometre on the ground An FF scale of 1 50 000 means 1 cm on the map represents 50 000 centimetres on the ground or 500 metres while an RF scale of 1 25 000 means 1 cm on the map represents 25 000 centimetres on the ground or 250 metres Common scales for maps are 1 100 000 and 1 25 000 A map of 1 100 000 scale shows a larger area of land while a map of 1 25 000 scale shows a smaller portion of land but in much greater detail The 1 25 000 maps cater for the majority of incidents and provides enough detail for planning and operations Linear scale On a linear scale bar the actual ground distance is quoted for its equivalent map distance and the zero appears a little way along so that only the portion to the left is finely divided The correct way to use a scale bar is to take most of the reading from the major subdivisions and then to add to this the balance of the distance measured from the finer divisions SCALE 1 100000 Kasem 2 i 2 w 12 Kiener rere srsrarastcacsrs ma E Linear scale ACT Rural Fire Service amp ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 July 2004 43 se
80. tic variation across the continent of Australia is not constant the majority of the country is subject to easterly variation of up to 15 but the western part of Western Australia has a westerly variation of up to 4 see Diagram below It becomes easy to make a mistake and add when you should subtract or subtract when you should add Therefore the only safe way to avoid this is to draw a rough diagram based on the relationship between grid and magnetic north as depicted in the map s north points diagram and the required bearing Magnetic variation across Australia ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 72 Conversion of bearings easterly variation Example 1 see Diagram A magnetic bearing of 50 is to be converted to a grid bearing The magnetic variation is 14 east So 50 14 64 which is the grid bearing Example 2 see Diagram A grid bearing of 89 is being converted to a magnetic bearing The magnetic variation is 14 east So 89 14 75 which is the magnetic bearing GRID BEARING 50 14 64 Easterly variation MAGNETIC BEARING 89 14 75 Easterly variation ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 73 Conversion of bearings westerly variation Example 1 see Diagram A A A magnetic bearing of 80 is to G be converted to a grid bearing M The magnetic variation is 4 west So 80 4 76 which is the grid beari
81. to read six figure grid references and set other essential data required for accurate GPS readings Direction Finding Magnetic compasses The compass is a valuable aid to cross country navigation particularly when moving at night or through dense vegetation where it is difficult to identify recognisable landmarks Sun and analogue watch If the sun is visible point the figure 12 on a watch towards the sun then true north is approximately halfway between the 12 and the hour hand Analogue watch Method This method illustrated above is suitable only in the South Temperate Zone In the tropics an east west line may be established by observing the movement of a shadow cast by a vertical stick on a flat surface over a period of 4 to 6 hours about midday illustrated below The watch must be set to standard time not daylight saving for both methods ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 88 bird Afternoon Morning Nie 7 sun sun i gt Arc of cast shadow WEST EAST AM shadow PM shadow 10 00 hrs approx 14 00 hrs approx Direction finding shadow stick method ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 89 Improvised compass Take a needle or piece of wire and stroke it against silk or a magnet if you have one in one direction only This will magnetise it If you then suspend it from a piece of string it will point north It can also be placed on piece of paper or a leaf in a bowl of wat
82. ub divided into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds Degrees are marked thus minutes and seconds When the compass is being used the subdivisions of a degree are too small for practical use and readings to one half of a degree are generally sufficient depending on the type of compass used This example learning resource uses the degree system North Points In map reading reference may be NON made to three north points shown in the diagram opposite Each is explained in detail below MN ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 63 north TN The earth spins on an axis which passes through the north and south poles The North Pole is geographical north or true north Lines drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole are true north south lines or meridians True north is therefore the direction from any point on the earth s surface to the North Pole Grid north GN Grid north is the direction of all the vertical lines on a topographic map The grid lines on a map do not lie true north and south except possibly along one standard Easting Elsewhere on the map they make an angle with the true north south line Since the grid lines are parallel and since they are drawn on the map it is very convenient to use them for drawing or measuring bearings The direction of the Eastings grid lines is therefore known as grid north and is used in preference to true north when reading a m
83. vigation walk Learning activity A ctivity 30 Prepare a navigation data sheet from information provided by your Trainer using the blank navigation data sheet in the appendix ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 96 SESSION 9 PACING JUDGING DISTANCE Learning Outcomes for this session e Calculate your pacing distance over 100 metres e Estimate distances with reasonable accuracy to a determined object e Locate features on the ground and locate the same features on the map Distance Traveled It is very important particularly when moving through vegetation to know the distance that has been covered The two basic methods for achieving this are described below Pacing This is generally accepted as being the more reliable method Distance can be counted in number of paces which for the individual can be translated into kilometer s depending on the type of country and the average length of the pace To determine stride length mark out a distance of 100 metres on flat ground Walk this distance at least three times counting either left or right foot only or both feet Take the average count of the three walks as your average stride for 100 metres in flat terrain Repeat the process going uphill and downhill as length of stride varies with slope To help keep count use small pebbles or seeds and transfer these from one pocket to another at each hundred metres Toggles or a specialised pace c
84. with your mental picture of what you expected from the map gt Whether there are any features in the area which will help you to fix the position or enable you to conduct a resection gt The possibility of local magnetic attraction compass error or map inaccuracy in the map although extreme care should be taken before attributing your being lost to the map As a result of careful consideration it should be possible to narrow the situation down to two or three probable locations A short reconnaissance in opposite directions should provide sufficient information to allow a fix of your position Leaders must always brief their groups on the action to be taken if they become separated from the group The brief must be kept simple and the action required should remain the same for all legs of a route If groups are told to move in specific directions when lost it should be worded in terms of north or south rather than left or right as direction can then be found with only a basic knowledge of the movement of the sun and stars For example move east to the railway and then follow it south Please Note If you become lost it is important that you follow your chain of command and notify your Incident Controller or Comcen so someone is aware of your situation ACT State Emergency Service Version 1 1 July 2004 93 Potential Access Restrictions At times a team may find its movement restricted by one means or another Sites of s

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