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User`s manual - OMEGA Engineering

1. Figure 13 1 Relationship between the field of view and distance 1 Distance to target 2 VFOV vertical field of view 3 HFOV horizontal field of view 4 IFOV instan taneous field of view size of one detector element This table gives examples of the field of view for different target distances Note The table does not take into account the minimum focus distance 10781103 a1 Focal length 6 76 mm Resolution 80 x 80 pixels Field of view in degrees 16 8 Legend D Distance to target in meters amp feet HFOV Horizontal field of view in meters amp feet VFOV Vertical field of view in meters amp feet IFOV Instantaneous field of view size of one detector element in millimeters amp inches Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 39 13 Technical data Field of view amp distance FLIR i7 10780503 a1 Figure 13 2 Relationship between the field of view and distance 1 Distance to target 2 VFOV vertical field of view 3 HFOV horizontal field of view 4 IFOV instan taneous field of view size of one detector element This table gives examples of the field of view for different target distances Note The table does not take into account the minimum focus distance T638201 a1 n eso 100 am smo wooo sso com
2. Soil dry 20 T 0 92 2 Soil saturated with wa 20 T 0 95 2 ter Stainless steel alloy 8 Ni 18 500 JT 0 35 1 Cr Stainless steel rolled 700 T 0 45 1 Stainless steel sandblasted 700 T 0 70 1 Stainless steel sheet polished 70 LW 0 14 9 Stainless steel sheet polished 70 SW 0 18 9 Stainless steel sheet untreated 70 LW 0 28 9 somewhat scratched Stainless steel sheet untreated 70 SW 0 30 9 somewhat scratched Stainless steel type 18 8 buffed 20 T 0 16 2 Stainless steel type 18 8 oxi 60 T 0 85 2 dized at 800 C Stucco rough lime 10 90 T 0 91 1 Styrofoam insulation 37 SW 0 60 7 Tar T 0 79 0 84 1 Tar paper 20 T 0 91 0 93 1 Tile glazed 17 SW 0 94 5 Tin burnished 20 50 T 0 04 0 06 1 Tin tin plated sheet 100 T 0 07 2 iron 162 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 24 Emissivity tables Titanium oxidized at 540 C 200 T 0 40 Titanium oxidized at 540 C 500 T 0 50 Titanium oxidized at 540 C 1000 T 0 60 Titanium polished 200 T 0 15 Titanium polished 500 T 0 20 Titanium polished 1000 T 0 36 Tungsten 200 T 0 05 Tungsten 600 1000 T 0 1 0 16 Tungsten 1500 2200 lh 0 24 0 31 Tungsten filament 3300 T 0 39 Varnish flat 20 SW 0 93 Varnish on oak parquet 70 LW 0 90 0 93 floor Varnish on oak parquet 70 SW 0 90 floor Wallpaper slight pattern light 20 SW 0 85 gray Wallpaper slight pattern red 20 SW 0 90 Water distilled
3. Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 53 16 Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment Drainage channels located too high and with too low an inclination Some water will remain in the drainage channel after rain which may lead to local leakage around the channel Inadequate sealing between roof membrane and roof outlet leading to local leakage around the roof outlet 16 3 3 4 Commented infrared images How do you find wet insulation below the surface of the roof When the surface itself is dry including any gravel or ballast a sunny day will warm the entire roof Early in the evening if the sky is clear the roof will begin to cool down by radiation Because of its higher thermal capacity the wet insulation will stay warmer longer than the dry and will be visible in the infrared camera see photos below The technique is partic ularly effective on roofs having absorbent insulation such as wood fiber fiberglass and perlite where thermal patterns correlate almost perfectly with moisture 54 Publ No 559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography Infrared inspections of roofs with nonabsorbent insulations common in many single ply systems are more difficult to diagnose because patterns are more diffuse This section includes a few typical infrared images of moisture problems on low slope c
4. 122 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 19 Glossary Term or expression Explanation transmission or transmittance factor Gases and materials can be more or less transparent Transmis sion is the amount of IR radiation passing through them A number between 0 and 1 transparent isotherm An isotherm showing a linear spread of colors instead of cover ing the highlighted parts of the image visual Refers to the video mode of a IR camera as opposed to the normal thermographic mode When a camera is in video mode it captures ordinary video images while thermographic images are captured when the camera is in IR mode Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 123 20 Thermographic measurement techniques 20 1 Introduction An infrared camera measures and images the emitted infrared radiation from an object The fact that radiation is a function of object surface temperature makes it possible for the camera to calculate and display this temperature However the radiation measured by the camera does not only depend on the tem perature of the object but is also a function of the emissivity Radiation also originates from the surroundings and is reflected in the object The radiation from the object and the reflected radiation will also be influenced by the absorption of the atmosphere To measure temperature accurately it is therefore necessary to
5. 10714303 a3 Figure 17 17 Overheating in a circuit breaker The overheating of this circuit breaker is most probably caused by bad contact in the near finger of the contactor Thus the far finger carries more current and gets hotter The component in the infrared image and in the photo is not the same however it is similar Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 109 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 17 6 Disturbance factors at thermographic inspection of electrical installations During thermographic inspections of different types of electrical installations distur bance factors such as wind distance to object rain or snow often influence the measurement result 17 6 1 Wind During outdoor inspection the cooling effect of the wind should be taken into account An overheating measured at a wind velocity of 5 m s 10 knots will be approximately twice as high at 1 m s 2 knots An excess temperature measured at 8 m s 16 knots will be 2 5 times as high at 1 m s 2 knots This correction factor which is based on empirical measurements is usually applicable up to 8 m s 16 knots There are however cases when you have to inspect even if the wind is stronger than 8 m s 16 knots There are many windy places in the world islands mountains and so on but it is important to know that overheated components found would have shown a considerably hi
6. and even icebergs The first operating systems in the modern sense began to be developed during the 1914 18 war when both sides had research programs devoted to the military exploitation of the infrared These programs included experimental systems for enemy intrusion detection remote temperature sensing secure commu nications and flying torpedo guidance An infrared search system tested during this period was able to detect an approaching airplane at a distance of 1 5 km 0 94 miles or a person more than 300 meters 984 ft away The most sensitive systems up to this time were all based upon variations of the bolometer idea but the period between the two wars saw the development of two revolutionary new infrared detectors the image converter and the photon detector At first the image converter received the greatest attention by the military because it enabled an observer for the first time in history to literally see in the dark However the sensitivity of the image converter was limited to the near infrared wavelengths and the most interesting military targets i e enemy soldiers had to be illuminated by infrared search beams Since this involved the risk of giving away the observer s position to a similarly equipped enemy observer it is understandable that military interest in the image converter eventually faded The tactical military disadvantages of so called active i e search beam equipped thermal imaging sy
7. Firmware updates for your infrared camera Program updates for your PC software User documentation Application stories Technical publications Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 4 Documentation updates General Our manuals are updated several times per year and we also issue product critical notifications of changes on a regular basis To access the latest manuals and notifications go to the Download tab at http support flir com It only takes a few minutes to register online In the download area you will also find the latest releases of manuals for our other products as well as manuals for our historical and obsolete products Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 5 5 General NOTE Important note about this manual FLIR Systems issues generic manuals that cover several cameras within a model line This means that this manual may contain descriptions and explanations that do not apply to your particular camera model FLIR Systems reserves the right to discontinue models software parts or accessories and other items or to change specifications and or functionality at any time without prior notice Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 6 Quick Start Guide Procedure Follow this procedure to get started right away 1 Remove the protective film from the LCD 2 You must charge the battery
8. these may need to be shut off several hours before a thermographic survey The room air temperature must not fall so much as to affect the surface temperature distribution on the structure s surfaces There is little timelag with electric radiators so they cool down relatively quickly once they have been switched off 20 30 minutes Lights placed against walls should be switched off when the infrared image is taken During a thermographic survey there should not be any disruptive air flows e g open windows open valves fans directed at the surface being measured that could affect the surfaces being thermographed 74 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography Any wet surfaces e g as a result of surface condensation have a definite effect on heat transfer at the surface and the surface temperature Where there is moisture on a surface there is usually some evaporation which draws off heat thus lowering the temperature of the surface by several degrees There is risk of surface condensation at major thermal bridges and insulation defects Significant disruptions of the kind described here can normally be detected and eliminated before measuring If during thermography it is not possible to shield surfaces being measured from disruptive factors these must be taken into account when interpreting and evaluating the results The conditions in which the thermogra
9. 2 Reflected emission from ambient sources 1 TW ef where 1 is the re flectance of the object The ambient sources have the temperature T er It has here been assumed that the temperature Tam is the same for all emitting surfaces within the halfsphere seen from a point on the object surface This is of course sometimes a simplification of the true situation It is however a necessary simplification in order to derive a workable formula and T can at least theoretically be given a value that represents an efficient temperature of a complex surrounding Note also that we have assumed that the emittance for the surroundings 1 This is correct in accordance with Kirchhoff s law All radiation impinging on the surrounding surfaces will eventually be absorbed by the same surfaces Thus the emittance 1 Note though that the latest discussion requires the complete sphere around the object to be considered 3 Emission from the atmosphere 1 T TWa tm where 1 T is the emittance of the atmosphere The temperature of the atmosphere is T atm The total received radiation power can now be written Equation 2 Wo ETW E TW on 1 7 W atm We multiply each term by the constant C of Equation 1 and replace the CW products by the corresponding U according to the same equation and get Equation 3 Up ETU Ue TU a Lae atm Solve Equation 3 for Up Equation 4 144 Publ No T55
10. 20 1 Introduction 20 2 Emissivity 20 2 4 Finding the emissivity of a sample sse 125 20 2 1 1 Step 1 Determining reflected apparent temperature 125 20 2 1 2 Step 2 Determining the emissivity sss 127 20 8 Reflected apparent temperature 128 20 4 Distance 128 20 5 Relative humidity 128 20 6 Other parameters nee AuR aA en nemine eie bitis 128 21 History of infrared technology ssssssseeenneen nennen nennen 129 22 Theory of thermography singna anda nennen nennen ennt nnne nennen 133 22 1 Introduction 133 22 2 The electromagnetic spectrum 138 22 3 Blackbody radiation 134 22 321 Planck s LAW ici ce Pear ees E rc e Dra e deed ER 135 22 3 2 Wien s displacement AW 2 tete ime aia 196 22 8 8 Stefan Boltzmann s law sssssssssssseeeeeeeenenrenennenetnennenntnennenntn teens 138 22 3 4 Non blackbody emitters sssssssssseeeeeeeen enne 139 22 4 Infrared semi transparent materials sse 141 23 The measurement formula sss enn nennen nnne nnns 143 24 Emissivity tables oce o ee oe eee edm eee s Eee DE eda 149 24 1 H ferenceSc cuscrcem ete te ep reete nevera avertere d ae een eee erts 149 24 2 Important note about th
11. Swedish Building Research Institute Stockholm 1972 Vicek J Determination of emissivity with imaging radiometers and some emissivities at A 5 um Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing Kern Evaluation of infrared emission of clouds and ground as measured by weather satellites Defence Documentation Center AD 617 417 hman Claes Emittansm tningar med AGEMA E Box Teknisk rapport AGEMA 1999 Emittance measurements using AGEMA E Box Technical report AGEMA 1999 Mattei S Tang Kwor E Emissivity measurements for Nextel Velvet coating 811 21 between 36 C AND 82 C Lohrengel amp Todtenhaupt 1996 ITC Technical publication 32 ITC Technical publication 29 24 2 Important note about the emissivity tables The emissivity values in the table below are recorded using a shortwave SW camera The values should be regarded as recommendations only and used with caution Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 149 24 Emissivity tables 24 3 Figure 24 1 T Total spectrum SW 2 5 um LW 8 14 um LLW 6 5 20 um 1 Material 2 Specification 3 Temperature in C 4 Spectrum 5 Emissivity 6 Reference Tables 3M type 35 Vinyl electrical lt 80 LW Ca 0 96 13 tape several col ors 3M type 88 Black vinyl electri lt 105 LW Ca 0 96 13 cal tape 3M type 88 Black vinyl electri lt 105 MW lt 0
12. THE SOFTWARE is provided AS IS and with all faults THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO SAT ISFACTORY QUALITY PERFORMANCE ACCURACY AND EFFORT INCLUDING LACK OF NEGLIGENCE IS WITH YOU ALSO THERE IS NO WARRANTY AGAINST INTERFERENCE WITH YOUR ENJOYMENT OF THE SOFTWARE OR AGAINST INFRINGEMENT IF YOU HAVE RECEIVED ANY WARRANTIES REGARDING THE DEVICE OR THE SOFTWARE THOSE WARRANTIES DO NOT ORIGINATE FROM AND ARE NOT BINDING ON MS No Liability for Certain Damages EXCEPT AS PROHIBITED BY LAW MS SHALL HAVE NO LIABILITY FOR ANY INDIRECT SPECIAL CONSEQUENTIAL OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES ARISING FROM OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFOR MANCE OF THE SOFTWARE THIS LIMITATION SHALL APPLY EVEN IF ANY REMEDY FAILS OF ITS ESSENTIAL PURPOSE IN NO EVENT SHALL MS BE LIABLE FOR ANY AMOUNT IN EXCESS OF U S TWO HUNDRED FIFTY DOLLARS U S 250 00 m Limitations on Reverse Engineering Decompilation and Disassembly You may not reverse engineer decompile or disassemble the SOFTWARE except and only to the extent that such activity is expressly permitted by applicable law notwithstanding this limitation SOFTWARE TRANSFER ALLOWED BUT WITH RESTRICTIONS You may permanently transfer rights under this EULA only as part of a permanent sale or transfer of the Device and only if the recipient agrees to this EULA If the SOFTWARE is an upgrade any transfer must also include all prior versions of the SOFTWARE EXPORT RESTRICTIONS You acknowledge that SOFTWARE is su
13. a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment Insulation deficiencies in an intermediate flow due to improperly installed fiberglass insulation batts The air infiltration enters the room from behind the cornice Air infiltration in a concrete floor over crawl space due to cracks in the brick wall facade The air infiltration enters the room beneath the skirting strip Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 65 16 Introduction to building thermography 16 3 7 3 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of details of building structures where air infiltration has occurred Infrared image Comment ME Air infiltration from behind a skirting strip Note the typical ray pattern ME Air infiltration from behind a skirting strip Note the typical ray pattern The white area to the left is a radiator _ Air infiltration from behind a skirting strip Note the typical ray pattern 66 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography 16 3 8 Insulation deficiencies 16 3 8 1 General information Insulation deficiencies do not necessarily lead to air infiltration If fiberglass insulation batts are improperly installed air pockets will form in the building structure Since these air pockets
14. plotted for various absolute temperatures 1 Spectral radiant emittance W cm x 1093 um 2 Wavelength um 22 3 2 Wien s displacement law By differentiating Planck s formula with respect to A and finding the maximum we have dones 2898 um This is Wien s formula after Wilhelm Wien 1864 1928 which expresses mathemati cally the common observation that colors vary from red to orange or yellow as the temperature of a thermal radiator increases The wavelength of the color is the same as the wavelength calculated for Ajax A good approximation of the value of An for a given blackbody temperature is obtained by applying the rule of thumb 3 000 T 136 Publ No 559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 22 Theory of thermography um Thus a very hot star such as Sirius 11 000 K emitting bluish white light radiates with the peak of spectral radiant emittance occurring within the invisible ultraviolet spectrum at wavelength 0 27 um 10399403 a1 Figure 22 5 Wilhelm Wien 1864 1928 The sun approx 6 000 K emits yellow light peaking at about 0 5 um in the middle of the visible light spectrum At room temperature 300 K the peak of radiant emittance lies at 9 7 um in the far infrared while at the temperature of liquid nitrogen 77 K the maximum of the almost insignificant amount of radiant emittance occurs at 38 um in the extreme infrared wavelengths Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLI
15. 100 T 0 05 Iron and steel electrolytic 260 T 0 07 Iron and steel electrolytic careful 175 225 T 0 05 0 06 ly polished Iron and steel freshly worked 20 T 0 24 with emery Iron and steel ground sheet 950 1100 T 0 55 0 61 Iron and steel heavily rusted 20 T 0 69 sheet Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 155 24 Emissivity tables Iron and steel hot rolled 20 T 0 77 1 Iron and steel hot rolled 130 T 0 60 1 Iron and steel oxidized 100 T 0 74 1 Iron and steel oxidized 100 T 0 74 4 Iron and steel oxidized 125 525 T 0 78 0 82 1 Iron and steel oxidized 200 T 0 79 2 Iron and steel oxidized 1227 T 0 89 4 Iron and steel oxidized 200 600 T 0 80 1 Iron and steel oxidized strongly 50 T 0 88 1 Iron and steel oxidized strongly 500 T 0 98 1 Iron and steel polished 100 T 0 07 2 Iron and steel polished 400 1000 T 0 14 0 38 1 Iron and steel polished sheet 750 1050 T 0 52 0 56 1 Iron and steel rolled freshly 20 T 0 24 1 Iron and steel rolled sheet 50 T 0 56 1 Iron and steel rough plane sur 50 T 0 95 0 98 1 face Iron and steel rusted heavily 17 SW 0 96 5 Iron and steel rusted red sheet 22 T 0 69 4 Iron and steel rusty red 20 T 0 69 1 Iron and steel shiny etched 150 T 0 16 1 Iron and steel shiny oxide layer 20 T 0 82 1 sheet Iron and steel wrought carefully 40 250 T 0 28 1 polished Iron galvanized heavily oxidized 70 LW 0 85 9
16. 35 SW 0 94 Asbestos paper 40 400 i 0 93 0 95 Asbestos powder T 0 40 0 60 Asbestos slate 20 T 0 96 Asphalt paving 4 LLW 0 967 Brass dull tarnished 20 350 T 0 22 Brass oxidized 70 SW 0 04 0 09 Brass oxidized 70 LW 0 03 0 07 Brass oxidized 100 T 0 61 Brass oxidized at 600 C 200 600 T 0 59 0 61 Brass polished 200 T 0 03 Brass polished highly 100 T 0 03 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 151 24 Emissivity tables Brass rubbed with 80 20 T 0 20 2 grit emery Brass sheet rolled 20 T 0 06 1 Brass sheet worked with 20 T 0 2 1 emery Brick alumina 17 SW 0 68 5 Brick common 17 SW 0 86 0 81 5 Brick Dinas silica 1100 T 0 85 1 glazed rough Brick Dinas silica refrac 1000 T 0 66 1 tory Brick Dinas silica 1000 T 0 80 1 unglazed rough Brick firebrick 17 SW 0 68 5 Brick fireclay 20 T 0 85 1 Brick fireclay 1000 T 0 75 1 Brick fireclay 1200 T 0 59 1 Brick masonry 35 SW 0 94 7 Brick masonry plas 20 T 0 94 1 tered Brick red common 20 T 0 93 2 Brick red rough 20 T 0 88 0 93 1 Brick refractory corun 1000 T 0 46 1 dum Brick refractory magne 1000 1300 T 0 38 1 site Brick refractory strongly 500 1000 T 0 8 0 9 1 radiating Brick refractory weakly 500 1000 T 0 65 0 75 1 radiating Brick silica 95 SiO 1230 T 0 66 1 Brick sillimanite 33 1500 i 0 29 1 SiO 64 Al2O3 152 Publ No T559580 R
17. 7 3 Commented infrared images ssssseeee 66 16 3 8 Insulation deficiencies riiin daiiras ansc araa EN 67 16 3 8 1 General information innin Aa nna aan 67 16 3 8 2 Commented building structures sss 67 16 3 8 3 Commented infrared images 69 16 4 Theory of building science inc 16 4 1 General information wn FA 16 4 2 The effects of testing and checking eee eee eee teeee eee teeteeeeteneeeeetee 72 16 4 3 Sources of disruption in thermography cc cece erect tneeeaeee 73 16 4 4 Surface temperature and air leaks oo sess 75 16 4 4 1 Pressure conditions in a building seen 75 16 4 5 Measuring conditions amp measuring season 1 16 4 6 Interpretation of infrared images 81 16 47 H rmidity amp dew poinL cttm reiten rite 83 viii Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 4 7 1 Relative amp absolute humidity ssssssssseeeee 83 16 4 7 2 Definition of dew point 16 4 8 Excerpt from Technical Note Assessing thermal bridging and insulation continuity UK example 1 2 intendente rere rende 83 16 4 8 1 Credits 88 16 4 8 2 Introduction 84 16 4 8 3 Background information cedere teens 84 16 4 8 4 Quantitative appraisal of thermal anomalies 85 16 4 85 Conditions and equipme
18. C 181 1 F and 78 4 C 173 1 F The last value 78 4 C 173 1 F is the maximum temperature as it was not possible to place a circle inside the now very small blackbody image Obviously it is not possible to measure correct values if the object is too small Distance was properly set to 10 meters 33 ft 10714603 a3 6b 638 C Figure 17 20 Temperature readings from a blackbody at 85 C 185 F at increasing distances 24 lens The reason for this effect is that there is a smallest object size which gives correct temperature measurement This smallest size is indicated to the user in all FLIR Sys tems cameras The image below shows what you see in the viewfinder of camera model 695 The spot meter has an opening in its middle more easily seen in the detail to the right The size of the object has to be bigger than that opening or some radiation from its closest neighbors which are much colder will come into the measurement 112 Publ No 559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations as well strongly lowering the reading In the above case where we have a point shaped object which is much hotter than the surroundings the temperature reading will be too low 10714703 a3 g J0511 04 BHP Figure 17 21 Image from the viewfinder of a ThermaCAM 695 This effect is due to imperfections in the optics and to t
19. For practical reasons the normal expected operating temperature of a component is taken as the temperature of the components in at least two out of three phases provided that you consider them to be working normally The most normal case is of course that all three phases have the same or at least almost the same temperature The operating temperature of outdoor components in substations or power lines is usually only 1 C or 2 C above the air temperature 1 8 F or 3 6 F In indoor substa tions the operating temperatures vary a lot more This fact is clearly shown by the image below as well Here the left phase is the one which shows an excess temperature The operating temperature taken from the two cold phases is 66 C 151 F The faulty phase shows a temperature of 127 C 261 F which has to be attended to without delay 10713503 a5 122 1 C 120 100 80 60 46 2 C Figure 17 9 An infrared image of indoor electrical equipment 2 17 3 5 Classification of faults Once a faulty connection is detected corrective measures may be necessary or may not be necessary for the time being In order to recommend the most appropriate action the following criteria should be evaluated Load during the measurement Even or varying load Position of the faulty part in the electrical installation Expected future load situation Is the excess temperature measured directly on the faulty spot or indirectly
20. Iron galvanized heavily oxidized 70 SW 0 64 9 Iron galvanized sheet 92 T 0 07 4 Iron galvanized sheet burnished 30 T 0 23 1 Iron galvanized sheet oxidized 20 T 0 28 1 156 Publ No 559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 24 Emissivity tables Iron tinned sheet 24 T 0 064 4 Krylon Ultra flat Flat black Roomtemperature LW Ca 0 96 12 black 1602 up to 175 Krylon Ultra flat Flat black Roomtemperature MW Ca 0 97 12 black 1602 up to 175 Lacquer 3 colors sprayed 70 LW 0 92 0 94 9 on Aluminum Lacquer 3 colors sprayed 70 SW 0 50 0 53 9 on Aluminum Lacquer Aluminum on 20 T 0 4 1 rough surface Lacquer bakelite 80 T 0 83 1 Lacquer black dull 40 100 T 0 96 0 98 1 Lacquer black matte 100 T 0 97 2 Lacquer black shiny 20 T 0 87 1 sprayed on iron Lacquer heat resistant 100 T 0 92 1 Lacquer white 40 100 T 0 8 0 95 1 Lacquer white 100 T 0 92 2 Lead oxidized gray 20 T 0 28 1 Lead oxidized gray 22 T 0 28 4 Lead oxidized at 200 C 200 T 0 63 1 Lead shiny 250 T 0 08 1 Lead unoxidized pol 100 T 0 05 4 ished Lead red 100 T 0 93 4 Lead red powder 100 T 0 93 1 Leather tanned T 0 75 0 80 1 Lime T 0 3 0 4 1 Magnesium 22 T 0 07 4 Magnesium 260 T 0 13 4 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 157 24 Emissivity tables Magnesium 538 T 0 18 4 Magnesium po
21. and combinations of materials function in practice Effective testing and checking as well as experiential feedback can be used to achieve the required development in this area The contractor is keen on more testing and inspection in order to ensure that the structures keep to an expected function that corresponds to established require ments in the regulations issued by authorities and in contractual documents The contractor wants to know at an early stage of construction about any changes that may be necessary so that systematic defects can be prevented During construction a check should therefore be carried out on the first apartments completed in a mass production project Similar checking then follows as production continues In this way systematic defects can be prevented and unnecessary costs and future problems can be avoided This check is of benefit both to manufacturers and to users Forthe developer and the property manager it is essential that buildings are checked with reference to heat economy maintenance damage from moisture or moisture infiltration and comfort for the occupants e g cooled surfaces and air movements in occupied zones 72 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography For the user the important thing is that the finished product fulfills the promised requirements in terms of the building s thermal insulation and airtightness Fo
22. battery connector inside the battery compartment Then press the On Off button again The reset button T630179 a1 hj fap i A Do not replace the battery on a frequent basis Only replace the battery when it is worn out The battery charging indicator is an LED beside the power connector It displays the following signals a No light The power supply is not connected Orange light The battery is being charged Green light The charging of the battery is completed Follow this procedure to charge the battery 1 Connect the power supply to the power connector on the camera T630175 a1 m 2 V M N Nea 1 Battery charging indicator 2 Power supply cable Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 17 11 Using the camera 2 Connectthe power supply mains electricity plug to a mains socket Make sure that you use the correct AC plug 3 Disconnectthe power supply cable plug when the battery charging indicator displays a green light 18 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 11 Using the camera 11 3 General Image capacity Formatting memory cards Naming convention Procedure Saving an image You can save multiple images to the miniSD memory card We recommend that you do not save more than 5 000 images on the miniSD memory card Although a me
23. blocks has also demonstrated this The figures quoted are probably not representative of buildings in general since the investigation data cannot be said to be significant for the entire building stock A cautious assessment however would be that effectively testing and checking a building s thermal insulation and airtightness can result in a reduction in energy consumption of about 1096 Research has also shown that increased energy consumption associated with defects is often caused by occupants increasing the indoor temperature by one or a few de grees above normal to compensate for the effect of annoying thermal radiation towards cooled surfaces or a sensation of disturbing air movements in a room 16 4 3 Sources of disruption in thermography During a thermographic survey the risk of confusing temperature variations caused by insulation defects with those associated with the natural variation in U values along warm surfaces of a structure is considered slight under normal conditions Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 73 16 Introduction to building thermography The temperature changes associated with variations in the U value are generally gradual and symmetrically distributed across the surface Variations of this kind do of course occur at the angles formed by roofs and floors and at the corners of walls Temperature changes associated with air leaks or insulation defects are in most cases more e
24. by a working group including expert thermogra phers and research consultants Additional consultation with other persons and or ganisations results in this document being widely accepted by all sides of industries The contents of this Technical Note is reproduced with kind permission from and fully copyrighted to United Kingdom Thermography Association UKTA UK Thermography Association c o British Institute of Nondestructive Testing 1 Spencer Parade Northampton NN1 5AA United Kingdom Tel 44 0 1604 630124 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 83 16 Introduction to building thermography Fax 44 0 1604 231489 16 4 8 2 Introduction Over the last few years the equipment applications software and understanding connected with thermography have all developed at an astonishing rate As the technology has gradually become integrated into mainstream practises a correspond ing demand for application guides standards and thermography training has arisen The UKTA is publishing this technical note in orderto establish a consistent approach to quantifying the results for a Continuity of Thermal Insulation examination It is in tended that specifiers should refer to this document as a guide to satisfying the re quirement in the Building Regulations therefore enabling the qualified thermographer to issue a pass or fail report 16 4 8 3 Background information Thermography can detect sur
25. compensate for the effects of a number of different radiation sources This is done on line automatically by the camera The following object parameters must however be supplied for the camera The emissivity of the object The reflected apparent temperature The distance between the object and the camera The relative humidity Temperature of the atmosphere 20 2 Emissivity The most important object parameter to set correctly is the emissivity which in short is a measure of how much radiation is emitted from the object compared to that from a perfect blackbody of the same temperature Normally object materials and surface treatments exhibit emissivity ranging from approximately 0 1 to 0 95 A highly polished mirror surface falls below 0 1 while an oxidized or painted surface has a higher emissivity Oil based paint regardless of color in the visible spectrum has an emissivity over 0 9 in the infrared Human skin exhibits an emissivity 0 97 to 0 98 Non oxidized metals represent an extreme case of perfect opacity and high reflexivity which does not vary greatly with wavelength Consequently the emissivity of metals is low only increasing with temperature For non metals emissivity tends to be high and decreases with temperature 124 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 20 Thermographic measurement techniques 20 2 1 Finding the emissivity of a sample 20 2 1 1 Step 1 Determining refle
26. delicate anti reflective coating Donotclean the infrared lens too vigorously This can damage the anti reflective coating 36 Publ No 559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 12 Cleaning the camera 12 3 General NOTE CAUTION Procedure Infrared detector Even small amounts of dust on the infrared detector can result in major blemishes in the image To remove any dust from the detector follow the procedure below This section only applies to cameras where removing the lens exposes the infrared detector In some cases the dust cannot be removed by following this procedure the infrared detector must be cleaned mechanically This mechanical cleaning must be carried out by an authorized service partner In Step 2 below do not use pressurized air from pneumatic air circuits in a workshop etc as this air usually contains oil mist to lubricate pneumatic tools Follow this procedure Remove the lens from the camera Use pressurized air from a compressed air canister to blow off the dust Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 37 13 Technical data For technical data refer to the datasheets on the user documentation CD ROM that comes with the camera 38 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 13 Technical data 13 1 Additional data Field of view amp 10780503 a1 distance FLIR i5
27. fuses the temperatures of which are very close to each other The inserted isotherm actually shows less than 2 C 3 6 F temperature difference between the phases Different colors are usually the result if the phases are carrying an unsymmetrical load This difference in colors does not represent any overheating since this does not occur locally but is spread along the whole phase 10713203 a3 Figure 17 6 An isotherm in an infrared image of a fusebox A real hot spot on the other hand shows a rising temperature as you look closer to the source of the heat See the image below where the profile line shows a steadily increasing temperature up to about 93 C 199 F at the hot spot Publ No 559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 99 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10713303 a4 Figure 17 7 A profile line in an infrared image and a graph displaying the increasing temperature 17 3 4 Normal operating temperature Temperature measurement with thermography usually gives the absolute temperature of the object In order to correctly assess whether the component is too hot it is necessary to know its operating temperature that is its normal temperature if we consider the load and the temperature of its environment As the direct measurement will give the absolute temperature which must be con sidered as
28. have a different thermal conductivity than areas where the insulation batts are properly installed the air pockets can be detected during a building ther mography inspection As a rule of thumb areas with insulation deficiencies typically have higher temperatures than where there is only an air infiltration When carrying out building thermography inspections aimed at detecting insulation deficiencies be aware of the following parts in a building structure which may look like insulation deficiencies on the infrared image Wooden joists studs rafter beams Steel girders and steel beams Water piping inside walls ceilings floors Electrical installations inside walls ceilings floors such as trunking piping etc Concrete columns inside timber framed walls Ventilation ducts amp air ducts 16 3 8 2 Commented building structures This section includes a few typical examples of details of building structures with in sulation deficiencies Structural drawing Comment 10553203 a2 AM Insulation deficiencies and air infiltration due to improper installation of insulation batts around an electrical mains supply This kind of insulation deficiency will show up as dark areas on an infrared image Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 67 16 Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment ee Insulation deficiencies due to improper
29. imaging Infrared Thermography Handbook Volume 1 Principles and Practise Norman Walker ISBN 0903132338 Volume 2 Applications A N Nowicki ISBN 090313232X BINDT 2005 16 4 8 3 1 Requirements A thermographic survey to demonstrate continuity of insulation areas of thermal bridging and compliance with Building Regulations should include the following 84 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography Thermal anomalies Differentiate between real thermal anomalies where temperature differences are caused by deficiencies in thermal insulation and those that occur through con founding factors such as localised differences in air movement reflection and emissivity Quantify affected areas in relation to the total insulated areas State whether the anomalies and the building thermal insulation as a whole are acceptable 16 4 8 4 Quantitative appraisal of thermal anomalies A thermographic survey will show differences in apparent temperature of areas within the field of view To be useful however it must systematically detect all the apparent defects assess them against a predetermined set of criteria reliably discount those anomalies that are not real defects evaluate those that are real defects and report the results to the client 16 4 8 4 1 Selection of critical temperature parameter The BRE information Paper IP17 01 Information Paper IP17
30. infrared image as local temperature increase NOTE A socket s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another For this reason different faults in a socket can lead to the same typical appearance in an infrared image Local temperature increase can also result from improper contact between a wire and socket or from difference in load Figure The image below shows a series of fuses where one fuse has a raised temperature on the contact surfaces against the fuse holder Because of the fuse holder s blank metal the temperature increase is not visible there while it is visible on the fuse s ceramic material 10739703 a1 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 45 15 Application examples 15 4 General NOTE Figure Insulation deficiencies Insulation deficiencies may result from insulation losing volume over the course of time and thereby not entirely filling the cavity in a frame wall An infrared camera allows you to see these insulation deficiencies because they either have a different heat conduction property than sections with correctly installed insu lation and or show the area where air is penetrating the frame of the building When you are inspecting a building the temperature difference between the inside and outside should be at least 10 C 18 F Studs water pipes concrete columns and similar components may resemble an insulation deficienc
31. inside the camera for four full hours or until the battery charging indicator displays a green light before you use the camera for the first time Charge the battery by connecting the power supply to the power connector on the camera Make sure that you use the correct AC plug Note The first time you charge a factory new battery you must turn on and then turn off the camera after you have connected the power supply to the power connector on the camera T630175 a1 1 Battery charging indicator 2 Power supply cable 3 Insert a miniSD memory card into the card slot T630176 a1 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 7 6 Quick Start Guide Push the On Off button to turn on the camera Note If the camera does not start after you have charged the battery push the reset button with a non conductive tool The reset button is located beside the battery connector inside the battery compartment Then press the On Off button again The reset button T630179 a1 Open the lens cap by pushing the lens cap lever T630177 a1 Aim the camera toward your target of interest Pull the Save trigger to save the image To move the image to a computer do one of the following T630178 a1 Fig 1 above Remove the miniSD memory card and insert it into a card reader connected to a computer A miniSD card adapter
32. is includ ed with your camera Fig 2 above Connect a computer to the camera using a USB Mini B cable In Windows Explorer move the image from the card or camera using a drag and drop operation 8 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 7 Contents NOTE Packing list Battery inside camera Calibration certificate FLIR QuickReport CD Hand strap Infrared camera miniSD card 512 MB with SD adapter Power supply charger with EU UK US and Australian plugs Printed Getting Started Guide USB cable User documentation CD ROM Contact your local sales office if any item is damaged or missing You can find the addresses and telephone numbers of local sales offices on the back cover of this manual FLIR Systems reserves the right to discontinue models parts or accessories and other items or to change specifications at any time without prior notice Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 8 Camera parts Figure 10780903 a1 Explanation This table explains the figure above Infrared lens Lever to open and close the lens cap Trigger to save images Cover to connectors and the miniSD memory card slot Cover to the battery compartment Attachment point for the hand strap 10 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 8 Cam
33. it were not for the compensating absorption of radiation from surrounding surfaces at room temperatures which do not vary too drastically from the temperature of the body or of course the addition of clothing 22 3 4 Non blackbody emitters So far only blackbody radiators and blackbody radiation have been discussed However real objects almost never comply with these laws over an extended wave length region although they may approach the blackbody behavior in certain spectral intervals For example a certain type of white paint may appear perfectly white in the visible light spectrum but becomes distinctly gray at about 2 um and beyond 3 um it is almost b ack There are three processes which can occur that prevent a real object from acting like a blackbody a fraction of the incident radiation a may be absorbed a fraction p may be reflected and a fraction T may be transmitted Since all of these factors are more or less wavelength dependent the subscript A is used to imply the spectral depen dence of their definitions Thus The spectral absorptance a the ratio of the spectral radiant power absorbed by an object to that incident upon it The spectral reflectance p the ratio of the spectral radiant power reflected by an object to that incident upon it The spectral transmittance T the ratio of the spectral radiant power transmitted through an object to that incident upon it The sum of these three factors mus
34. least 10 C 18 F for a number of hours before thermographic imaging and for as long as the procedure takes For the same period the ambient temperature difference must not vary by more than 30 of the difference when the thermo graphic imaging starts During the thermographic imaging the indoor ambient temperature should not change by more than 2 C 3 6 F For a number of hours prior before thermographic imaging and as long as it con tinues no influencing sunlight may fall upon the relevant part of the building Negative pressure within the structure 10 50 Pa When conducting thermographic imaging in order to locate only air leaks in the building s enclosing sections the requirements in terms of measuring conditions may be lower A difference of 5 C 9 F between the inside and outside ambient temperatures ought to be sufficient for detecting such defects To be able to detect air leaks certain requirements must however be made with regard to the differential pressure about 10 Pa should be sufficient 16 4 6 Interpretation of infrared images The main purpose of thermography is to locate faults and defects in thermal insulation in exterior walls and floor structures and to determine their nature and extent The measuring task can also be formulated in such a way that the aim of the thermography is to confirm whether or not the wall examined has the promised insulation and air tightness characteristics The promised th
35. network to keep your camera running at all times If you discover a problem with your camera local service centers have all the equipment and expertise to solve it within the shortest possible time Therefore there is no need to send your camera to the other side of the world or to talk to someone who does not speak your language 18 4 A few images from our facilities 10401303 a1 Figure 18 3 LEFT Development of system electronics RIGHT Testing of an FPA detector 118 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 18 About FLIR Systems B 10401403 a1 Figure 18 4 LEFT Diamond turning machine RIGHT Lens polishing 10401503 a1 Figure 18 5 LEFT Testing of infrared cameras in the climatic chamber RIGHT Robot used for camera testing and calibration Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 119 19 Term or expression Glossary Explanation absorption absorption factor The amount of radiation absorbed by an object relative to the received radiation A number between 0 and 1 atmosphere The gases between the object being measured and the camera normally air autoadjust A function making a camera perform an internal image correc tion autopalette The IR image is shown with an uneven spread of colors display ing cold objects as well as hot ones at the same time blackbody Totally non reflective object All its radiation is due to
36. now assume that the object is not black it has an emittance of 0 75 and the transmittance is 0 92 We also assume that the two second terms of Equation 4 amount to 0 5 volts together Computation of Uopj by means of Equation 4 then results in Uopj 4 5 0 75 0 92 0 5 6 0 This is a rather extreme extrapolation particularly when considering that the video amplifier might limit the output to 5 volts Note though that the application of the calibration curve is a theoretical procedure where no elec tronic or other limitations exist We trust that if there had been no signal limitations in the camera and if it had been calibrated far beyond 5 volts the resulting curve would have been very much the same as our real curve extrapolated beyond 4 1 volts pro vided the calibration algorithm is based on radiation physics like the FLIR Systems algorithm Of course there must be a limit to such extrapolations 146 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 23 The measurement formula 10400603 a2 1 0 C 32 F 20 C 68 F 50 C 122 F 0 6 Ds Atm x A Figure 23 3 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions SW camera 1 Object temperature 2 Emittance Obj Object radiation Refl Reflected radiation Atm atmosphere radiation Fixed parameters T 0 88 Tye 20 C 68 F Tatm 20 C 68 F Publ No T559580 Rev a506
37. range through which you can charge the battery is 0 C to 45 C 32 F to 113 F unless specified otherwise in the user documenta tion If you charge the battery at temperatures out of this range it can cause the battery to become hot or to break It can also decrease the performance or the life cycle of the battery The temperature range through which you can discharge the battery is 15 C to 50 C 5 F to 122 F unless specified otherwise in the user documen tation Use of the battery out of this temperature range can decrease the per formance or the life cycle of the battery When the battery is worn apply insulation to the terminals with adhesive tape or similar materials before you discard it Remove any water or moisture on the battery before you install it Do not apply solvents or similar liquids to the camera the cables or other items This can cause damage Be careful when you clean the infrared lens The lens has a delicate anti reflective coating Do not clean the infrared lens too vigorously This can damage the anti reflective coating In furnace and other high temperature applications you must mount a heatshield on the camera Using the camera in furnace and other high temperature applica tions without a heatshield can cause damage to the camera Applies only to cameras with an automatic shutter that can be disabled Do not disable the automatic shutter in the camera for a prolonged time period
38. temperature For cameras where the detector is cooled by a mechanical cooler this time period excludes the time it takes to cool down the detector 10742803 a1 As with most electronic products this equipment must be disposed of in an environ mentally friendly way and in accordance with existing regulations for electronic waste Please contact your FLIR Systems representative for more details To read about infrared training visit http www infraredtraining com a http www rtraining com http www rtraining eu Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 Co 3 General Submitting a question Downloads Customer help For customer help visit http support flir com To submit a question to the customer help team you must be a registered user It only takes a few minutes to register online If you only want to search the knowledge base for existing questions and answers you do not need to be a registered user When you want to submit a question make sure that you have the following informa tion to hand The camera model The camera serial number The communication protocol or method between the camera and your PC for example HDMI Ethernet USB or FireWire Operating system on your PC Microsoft Office version Full name publication number and revision number of the manual On the customer help site you can also download the following
39. the critical surface temperature factor These arguments do not obviate the need for the thermographer to beware of re flections of objects at unusual temperatures in the background facing the building fabric surfaces The thermographer should also use a comparison between external faces facing different directions to determine whether there is residual heat from solar gain af fecting the external surfaces External surveys should not be conducted on a surface where T Tso on the face is more than 10 greater than Tsi Tso on the north or nearest to north face For a defect that causes a failure under the 0 75 condition of IP17 01 the critical surface factors are 0 78 on the inside surface and 0 93 on the outside surface The table below shows the internal and external surface temperatures at an anomaly which would lead to failure under IP17 01 It also shows the deterioration in thermal insulation that is necessary to cause this Example for lightweight built up cladding with defective Good area Failing area insulation Outside temperature in C 0 0 Inside surface temperature in C 19 1 15 0 86 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography Example for lightweight built up cladding with defective Good area Failing area insulation Outside surface temperature in C Surface factor from IP17 01 Critical external surface temperature fa
40. through conducted heat caused by some fault inside the apparatus Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 101 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations Excess temperatures measured directly on the faulty part are usually divided into three categories relating to 10096 of the maximum load lt 5 C 9 F The start of the overheat condi tion This must be carefully monitored 5 30 C 9 54 F Developed overheating It must be repaired as soon as possible but think about the load situa tion before a decision is made gt 30 C 54 F Acute overheating Must be re paired immediately but think about the load situation before a decision is made 102 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 17 4 Reporting Nowadays thermographic inspections of electrical installations are probably without exception documented and reported by the use of a report program These programs which differ from one manufacturer to another are usually directly adapted to the cameras and will thus make reporting very quick and easy The program which has been used for creating the report page shown below is called FLIR Reporter It is adapted to several types of infrared cameras from FLIR Systems A professional report is often divided into two sections Fr
41. very good heat conductor This means that temperature variation over the surface is small 230 2 2 18 1650 The surface of a component with a high emissivity for example a breaker can on a hot summer day be heated up to quite considerable temperatures by irradiation from the sun The image shows a circuit breaker which has been heated by the sun 10717503 a2 k 8 mse 1s lec Figure 17 11 Reflections in an object 17 5 2 Solar heating Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 105 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10713803 a3 12 5 C 10 7 6 C Figure 17 12 An infrared image of a circuit breaker 17 5 3 Inductive heating 10713903 a3 13 7C 1 8 C Figure 17 13 An infrared image of hot stabilizing weights Eddy currents can cause a hot spot in the current path In cases of very high currents and close proximity of other metals this has in some cases caused serious fires This type of heating occurs in magnetic material around the current path such as metallic bottom plates for bushing insulators In the image above there are stabilizing weights through which a high current is running These metal weights which are made of a slightly magnetic material will not conduct any current but are exposed to the alter nating magnetic fields which will eventually heat up the weight The overheating in the image is
42. well as most components have an upper limit to their absolute tempera tures it is necessary to calculate the expected operating temperature given the load and the ambient temperature Consider the following definitions Operating temperature the absolute temperature of the component It depends on the current load and the ambient temperature It is always higher than the am bient temperature Excess temperature overheating the temperature difference between a properly working component and a faulty one The excess temperature is found as the difference between the temperature of a normal component and the temperature of its neighbor It is important to compare the same points on the different phases with each other As an example see the following image taken from indoor equipment 10713403 a4 Figure 17 8 An infrared image of indoor electrical equipment 1 100 Publ No 559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations The two left phases are considered as normal whereas the right phase shows a very clear excess temperature Actually the operating temperature of the left phase is 68 C 154 F that is quite a substantial temperature whereas the faulty phase to the right shows a temperature of 86 C 187 F This means an excess temper ature of 18 C 33 F that is a fault that has to be attended to quickly
43. 01 Assessing the Effects of Thermal Bridging at Junctions and Around Openings Tim Ward BRE 2001 pro vides useful guidance on minimum acceptable internal surface temperatures and appropriate values of Critical Surface Temperature Factor fca The use of a surface temperature factor allows surveys under any thermal conditions to show areas that are at risk of condensation or mould growth under design conditions The actual surface temperature will depend greatly on the temperatures inside and outside at the time of the survey but a Surface Temperature Factor fps has been devised that is independent of the absolute conditions It is a ratio of temperature drop across the building fabric to the total temperature drop between inside and outside air For internal surveys fas Ts T3 T Te Ty internal surface temperature T 7 internal air temperature T external air temperature A value for f psi of 0 75 is considered appropriate across new building as the upper end usage is not a factor considered in testing for Continuity of Insulation or Thermal Bridging However when considering refurbished or extended buildings for example swimming pools internal surveys may need to account for unusal circumstances Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 85 16 Introduction to building thermography 16 4 8 4 2 Alternative method using only surface temperatures There are strong argu
44. 20 T 0 96 Water frost crystals 10 T 0 98 Water ice covered with O T 0 98 heavy frost Water ice smooth 10 T 0 96 Water ice smooth 0 T 0 97 Water layer 20 1 mm 0 100 T 0 95 0 98 thick Water snow WT 0 8 Water snow 10 T 0 85 Wood 17 Sw 0 98 Wood 19 LLW 0 962 Wood ground T 0 5 0 7 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 163 24 Emissivity tables pine 4 different samples pine 4 different samples planed planed oak 70 20 20 0 81 0 89 0 67 0 75 0 8 0 9 0 90 planed oak 70 0 88 planed oak 70 plywood smooth dry 36 0 82 plywood untreat ed 20 0 83 white damp 20 0 7 0 8 oxidized at 400 C 400 0 11 oxidized surface polished sheet 1000 1200 200 300 50 0 50 0 60 0 04 0 05 0 20 164 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 A note on the technical production of this publication This publication was produced using XML the eXtensible Markup Language For more information about XML please visit http www w3 org XML A note on the typeface used in this publication This publication was typeset using Swiss 721 which is Bitstream s pan European version of the Helvetica typeface Helvetica was designed by Max Miedinger 1910 1980 List of effective files 20235103 xml a24 20235203 xml a21 20235303 xml a18
45. 20236703 xml a55 20237103 xml a10 20238503 xml a9 20238703 xml b8 20250403 xml a21 20254903 xml a65 20257003 xml a40 20257103 xml a17 20257303 xml a32 20273203 xml a13 20275203 xml a14 20279803 xml a7 20281003 xml a1 20287303 xml a9 20287703 xml a4 20287803 xml a7 20287903 xml a1 20288003 xml a2 20288103 xml a3 20288203 xml a3 20288303 xml a2 20288403 xml a6 20288503 xml a4 20292403 xml a5 R131 rcp a1 config xml a5 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 165 166 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011
46. 6 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 127 20 Thermographic measurement techniques Avoid forced convection Look for a thermally stable surrounding that will not generate spot reflections Use high quality tape that you know is not transparent and has a high emissivity you are certain of This method assumes that the temperature of your tape and the sample surface are the same If they are not your emissivity measurement will be wrong 20 3 Reflected apparent temperature This parameter is used to compensate for the radiation reflected in the object If the emissivity is low and the object temperature relatively far from that of the reflected it will be important to set and compensate for the reflected apparent temperature cor rectly 20 4 Distance The distance is the distance between the object and the front lens of the camera This parameter is used to compensate for the following two facts That radiation from the target is absorbed by the athmosphere between the object and the camera That radiation from the atmosphere itself is detected by the camera 20 5 Relative humidity The camera can also compensate for the fact that the transmittance is also dependent on the relative humidity of the atmosphere To do this set the relative humidity to the correct value For short distances and normal humidity the relative humidity can nor mally be left at a default value of 5096 20 6 Other parameters In addition some camer
47. 9580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 23 The measurement formula Doe XE obj atm T ET This is the general measurement formula used in all the FLIR Systems thermographic equipment The voltages of the formula are Figure 23 2 Voltages Calculated camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature Tj i e a voltage that can be directly converted into true requested object temperature Measured camera output voltage for the actual case Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature Tes according to the calibration Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature Tatm according to the calibration The operator has to supply a number of parameter values for the calculation the object emittance the relative humidity Tatm object distance Dopj the effective temperature of the object surroundings or the reflected ambient temperature Tef and the temperature of the atmosphere Tatm This task could sometimes be a heavy burden for the operator since there are normally no easy ways to find accurate values of emittance and atmospheric transmittance for the actual case The two temperatures are normally less of a problem provided the surroundings do not contain large and intense radiation sources A natural question in this connection is How important is it to know the right values of these parameters It could though be of interest to get a fee
48. 96 13 cal tape 3M type Super Black vinyl electri lt 80 LW Ca 0 96 13 33 cal tape Aluminum anodized black 70 LW 0 95 9 dull Aluminum anodized black 70 SW 0 67 9 dull Aluminum anodized light 70 LW 0 97 9 gray dull Aluminum anodized light 70 SW 0 61 9 gray dull Aluminum anodized sheet 100 T 0 55 2 Aluminum as received plate 100 T 0 09 4 Aluminum as received sheet 100 T 0 09 2 Aluminum cast blast cleaned 70 LW 0 46 9 Aluminum cast blast cleaned 70 SW 0 47 9 Aluminum dipped in HNO3 100 ib 0 05 4 plate Aluminum foil 27 3 um 0 09 3 Aluminum foil 27 10 um 0 04 3 Aluminum oxidized strongly 50 500 T 0 2 0 3 1 Aluminum polished 50 100 T 0 04 0 06 1 Aluminum polished sheet 100 T 0 05 2 Aluminum polished plate 100 T 0 05 4 150 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 24 Emissivity tables Aluminum roughened 27 3 um 0 28 Aluminum roughened 27 10 um 0 18 Aluminum rough surface 20 50 T 0 06 0 07 Aluminum sheet 4 samples 70 LW 0 03 0 06 differently scratched Aluminum sheet 4 samples 70 SW 0 05 0 08 differently scratched Aluminum vacuum deposited 20 T 0 04 Aluminum weathered heavily 17 SW 0 83 0 94 Aluminum bronze 20 T 0 60 Aluminum hydrox powder T 0 28 ide Aluminum oxide activated powder T 0 46 Aluminum oxide pure powder alu T 0 16 mina Asbestos board 20 T 0 96 Asbestos fabric T 0 78 Asbestos floor tile
49. ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 147 23 The measurement formula 10400703 a2 1 0 C 32 F 20 C 68 F 50 C 122 F WP PEE Figure 23 4 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions LW camera 1 Object temperature 2 Emittance Obj Object radiation Refl Reflected radiation Atm atmosphere radiation Fixed parameters T 0 88 T ef 20 C 68 F Tatm 20 C 68 F 148 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 24 Emissivity tables This section presents a compilation of emissivity data from the infrared literature and measurements made by FLIR Systems 24 1 References Mika l A Bramson Infrared Radiation A Handbook for Applications Plenum press N Y William L Wolfe George J Zissis The Infrared Handbook Office of Naval Research Department of Navy Washington D C Madding R P Thermographic Instruments and systems Madison Wisconsin Univer sity of Wisconsin Extension Department of Engineering and Applied Science William L Wolfe Handbook of Military Infrared Technology Office of Naval Research Department of Navy Washington D C Jones Smith Probert External thermography of buildings Proc of the Society of Photo Optical Instrumentation Engineers vol 110 Industrial and Civil Applications of Infrared Technology June 1977 London Paljak Pettersson Thermography of Buildings
50. LISH EN February 4 2011 9 Screen elements Figure 10781203 a2 Area max g Areamin ll Detect above Detect below Explanation This table explains the figure above 1 Menu system 2 Measurement result 3 Power indicator One of the following The camera is powered using the battery The battery is being charged indicated by a refilling battery animation The battery is fully charged and the camera is powered using the power supply 4 Date and time 5 Limit value for the temperature scale Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 13 9 Screen elements 6 Temperature scale 7 Currently set emissivity value or material properties 8 Current function for the right selection button 9 Current function for the left selection button 14 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 10 Connectors and storage media Figure 10780803 a1 Explanation This table explains the figure above miniSD memory card We recommend that you do not save more than 5 000 images on the min iSD memory card Although a memory card may have a higher capacity than 5 000 images saving more than that number of images severely slows down file manage ment on the miniSD memory card Note There is no upper limit to the memory size of the miniSD mem
51. Microwaves 6 Radiowaves Thermography makes use of the infrared spectral band At the short wavelength end the boundary lies at the limit of visual perception in the deep red At the long wave length end it merges with the microwave radio wavelengths in the millimeter range The infrared band is often further subdivided into four smaller bands the boundaries of which are also arbitrarily chosen They include the near infrared 0 75 3 um the middle infrared 3 6 um the far infrared 6 15 um and the extreme infrared 15 100 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 133 22 Theory of thermography um Although the wavelengths are given in um micrometers other units are often still used to measure wavelength in this spectral region e g nanometer nm and ngstr m A The relationships between the different wavelength measurements is 10 000 1 000 nm 1 u 1 pm 22 3 Blackbody radiation A blackbody is defined as an object which absorbs all radiation that impinges on it at any wavelength The apparent misnomer black relating to an object emitting radia tion is explained by Kirchhoff s Law after Gustav Robert Kirchhoff 1824 1887 which states that a body capable of absorbing all radiation at any wavelength is equally capable in the emission of radiation 10398803 a1 Figure 22 2 Gustav Robert Kirchhoff 1824 1887 The construction of a blackbody source is in principle very sim
52. Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 18 About FLIR Systems China France Germany Great Britain Hong Kong Italy Japan Korea Sweden and the USA together with a worldwide network of agents and distributors support our international customer base FLIR Systems is at the forefront of innovation in the infrared camera industry We an ticipate market demand by constantly improving our existing cameras and developing new ones The company has set milestones in product design and development such as the introduction of the first battery operated portable camera for industrial inspec tions and the first uncooled infrared camera to mention just two innovations 10722703 a2 Figure 18 2 LEFT Thermovision amp Model 661 from 1969 The camera weighed approximately 25 kg 55 Ib the oscilloscope 20 kg 44 Ib and the tripod 15 kg 33 Ib The operator also needed a 220 VAC generator set and a 10 L 2 6 US gallon jar with liquid nitrogen To the left of the oscilloscope the Polaroid attachment 6 kg 13 Ib can be seen RIGHT FLIR i7 from 2009 Weight 0 34 kg 0 75 Ib including the battery FLIR Systems manufactures all vital mechanical and electronic components of the camera systems itself From detector design and manufacturing to lenses and system electronics to final testing and calibration all production steps are carried out and supervised by our own engineers The in depth expertise of the
53. SH EN February 4 2011 137 22 Theory of thermography 10327203 a4 10 Figure 22 6 Planckian curves plotted on semi log scales from 100 K to 1000 K The dotted line represents the locus of maximum radiant emittance at each temperature as described by Wien s displacement law 1 Spectral radiant emittance W cm um 2 Wavelength uim 22 3 3 Stefan Boltzmann s law By integrating Planck s formula from A 0 to A we obtain the total radiant emittance Wy of a blackbody W oT Watt m This is the Stefan Boltzmann formula after Josef Stefan 1835 1893 and Ludwig Boltzmann 1844 1906 which states that the total emissive power of a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature Graphically W represents the area below the Planck curve for a particular temperature It can be shown that the radiant emittance in the interval A 0 to Amax is only 25 ofthe total which represents about the amount of the sun s radiation which lies inside the visible light spectrum 138 Publ No 559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 22 Theory of thermography 10399303 a1 Figure 22 7 Josef Stefan 1835 1893 and Ludwig Boltzmann 1844 1906 Using the Stefan Boltzmann formula to calculate the power radiated by the human body at a temperature of 300 K and an external surface area of approx 2 m we obtain 1 kW This power loss could not be sustained if
54. The method is quick a The method only detects surface temperature The method is a non intrusive means of investi differentials and can not see through walls gation Themethod can not detect subsurface damage The method does not require relocation of the i e mold or structural damage occupants The method features an illustrative visual pre sentation of findings The method confirms failure points and mois ture migration paths 16 3 3 Moisture detection 1 Low slope commercial roofs 16 3 3 1 General information Low slope commercial roofing is one of the most common roof types for industrial building such as warehouses industrial plants machinery shops etc Its major ad vantages over a pitched roof is the lower cost in material and building However due to its design where snow and ice will not fall off by itself as is the case for the major ity of pitched roofs it must be strongly built to support the accumulated weight of both roof structure and any snow ice and rain Although a basic understanding of the construction of low slope commercial roofs is desirable when carrying out a roof thermography inspection expert knowledge is not necessary There is a large number of different design principles for low slope com mercial roofs both when it comes to material and design and it would be impossible for the infrared inspection person to know them all If additional information about a certain roof is needed the a
55. The resultant pressure gradient across the various structural elements can be illustrated by the figure on page 77 The irregular effects of wind on a building means that in practice the pressure conditions may be relatively variable and complicated Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 75 16 Introduction to building thermography In a steady wind flow Bernoulli s Law applies pv E p constant where Air density in kg m3 Wind velocity in m s Static pressure in Pa and where p 2 denotes the dynamic pressure and p the static pressure The total of these pressures gives the total pressure Wind load against a surface makes the dynamic pressure become a static pressure against the surface The magnitude of this static pressure is determined by amongst other things the shape of the surface and its angle to the wind direction The portion of the dynamic pressure that becomes a static pressure on the surface Pstat is determined by what is known as a stress concentration factor C E Pitat pv 2 If p is 1 23 kg m density of air at 15 C 59 F this gives the following local pressures in the wind flow 2 2 pu U a Cx Cx Patat 2 1 63 Pa 76 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography 10551803 a1 1 Figure 16 3 Distribution of resultant pressures on a buil
56. User s manual FLIR i3 FLIR i5 FLIR i7 Extech IRC30 Publ No T559580 Revision a506 User s manual FLIR TERTE e Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 Legal disclaimer All products manufactured by FLIR Systems are warranted against defective materials and workmanship for a period of one 1 year from the delivery date of the original purchase provided such products have been under normal storage use and service and in accordance with FLIR Systems instruction Products which are not manufactured by FLIR Systems but included in systems delivered by FLIR Systems to the original purchaser carry the warranty if any of the particular supplier only FLIR Systems has no responsibility whatsoever for such products The warranty extends only to the original purchaser and is not transferable It is not applicable to any product which has been subjected to misuse neglect accident or abnormal conditions of operation Expendable parts are excluded from the warranty In the case of a defect in a product covered by this warranty the product must not be further used in order to prevent additional damage The purchaser shall promptly report any defect to FLIR Systems or this warranty will not apply FLIR Systems will at its option repair or replace any such defective product free of charge if upon inspection it proves to be defective in material or workmanship and prov
57. ZL02331553 9 ZL02331554 7 ZL200480034894 0 ZL200530120994 2 ZL2006301301 14 4 ZL200730151141 4 ZL200730339504 7 ZL200830128581 2 EULA Terms m You have acquired a device INFRARED CAMERA that includes software licensed by FLIR Systems AB from Microsoft Licensing GP or its affiliates MS Those installed software products of MS origin as well as associated media printed materials and online or electronic documentation SOFTWARE are protected by international intellectual property laws and treaties The SOFTWARE is licensed not sold All rights reserved m IF YOU DO NOT AGREE TO THIS END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT EULA DO NOT USE THE DEVICE OR COPY THE SOFTWARE INSTEAD PROMPTLY CONTACT FLIR Systems AB FOR INSTRUCTIONS ON RETURN OF THE UNUSED DEVICE S FOR A REFUND ANY USE OF THE SOFTWARE INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO USE ON THE DEVICE WILL CONSTITUTE YOUR AGREEMENT TO THIS EULA OR RATIFICATION OF ANY PREVIOUS CONSENT GRANT OF SOFTWARE LICENSE This EULA grants you the following license m You may use the SOFTWARE only on the DEVICE iv Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 NOT FAULT TOLERANT THE SOFTWARE IS NOT FAULT TOLERANT FLIR Systems AB HAS INDEPENDENTLY DETERMINED HOW TO USE THE SOFTWARE IN THE DEVICE AND MS HAS RELIED UPON FLIR Systems AB TO CONDUCT SUFFICIENT TESTING TO DETERMINE THAT THE SOFTWARE IS SUITABLE FOR SUCH USE NO WARRANTIES FOR THE SOFTWARE
58. ad to select Spot Push the left selection button Select The temperature at the position of the spotmeter will now displayed in the top left corner of the screen 24 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 11 Using the camera 11 9 Measuring a temperature using an area General You can continuously indicate the highest or lowest temperature within an area using a continuously moving cursor Procedure Follow this procedure Push the left selection button Menu Use the navigation pad to select Measurement Push the left selection button Select Use the navigation pad to select one of the following Area max Area min Push the left selection button Select The highest or lowest temperature within the area will now be indicated by a continuously moving cursor The temperature will also be displayed in the top left corner of the screen Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 25 11 Using the camera 11 10 Marking all areas above or below a set temperature level General You can mark all areas above or below a set temperature level Procedure Follow this procedure Push the left selection button Menu Use the navigation pad to select Measurement Push the left selection button Select Use the navigation pad to select one of the following Detect above a Detect below Pus
59. amera General When you communicate with our service departments you may need to state the serial number of the camera The serial number is printed on a label inside the battery compartment behind the battery 34 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 12 12 1 Liquids Equipment Procedure CAUTION Cleaning the camera Camera housing cables and other items Use one of these liquids a Warm water a A weak detergent solution A soft cloth Follow this procedure Soak the cloth in the liquid Twist the cloth to remove excess liquid Clean the part with the cloth Do not apply solvents or similar liquids to the camera the cables or other items This can cause damage Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 35 12 Cleaning the camera 12 2 Infrared lens Liquids Use one of these liquids 96 isopropyl alcohol a A commercial lens cleaning liquid with more than 30 isopropyl alcohol Equipment Cotton wool Procedure Follow this procedure Soak the cotton wool in the liquid Twist the cotton wool to remove excess liquid Clean the lens one time only and discard the cotton wool WARNING Make sure that you read all applicable MSDS Material Safety Data Sheets and warning labels on containers before you use a liquid the liquids can be dangerous CAUTION Becareful when you clean the infrared lens The lens has a
60. apter for connecting the batteries to a cigarette lighter socket is provided by FLIR Systems a Do not connect the positive terminal and the negative terminal of the battery to each other with a metal object such as wire Do not get water or salt water on the battery or permit the battery to get wet Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 1 1 Warnings amp Cautions Do not make holes in the battery with objects Do not hit the battery with a hammer Do not step on the battery or apply strong impacts or shocks to it a Donotputthe batteries in or near a fire or into direct sunlight When the battery becomes hot the built in safety equipment becomes energized and can stop the battery charging process If the battery becomes hot damage can occur to the safety equipment and this can cause more heat damage or ignition of the battery Do not put the battery on a fire or increase the temperature of the battery with heat Do not put the battery on or near fires stoves or other high temperature loca tions a Do not solder directly onto the battery Do not use the battery if when you use charge or store the battery there is an unusual smell from the battery the battery feels hot changes color changes shape or is in an unusual condition Contact your sales office if one or more of these problems occurs Only use a specified battery charger when you charge the battery The temperature
61. as and analysis programs from FLIR Systems allow you to compensate for the following parameters Atmospheric temperature i e the temperature of the atmosphere between the camera and the target External optics temperature i e the temperature of any external lenses or windows used in front of the camera External optics transmittance i e the transmission of any external lenses or win dows used in front of the camera 128 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 21 History of infrared technology Before the year 1800 the existence of the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum wasn t even suspected The original significance of the infrared spectrum or simply the infrared as it is often called as a form of heat radiation is perhaps less obvious today than it was at the time of its discovery by Herschel in 1800 10398703 a1 Figure 21 1 Sir William Herschel 1738 1822 The discovery was made accidentally during the search for a new optical material Sir William Herschel Royal Astronomer to King George III of England and already famous for his discovery of the planet Uranus was searching for an optical filter material to reduce the brightness of the sun s image in telescopes during solar obser vations While testing different samples of colored glass which gave similar reductions in brightness he was intrigued to find that some of the samples passed very little of the sun s
62. ation pad to select the image you want to see then push the right selection button Open To return to live mode do one of the following a Push the Archive button Push the right selection button Close 20 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 11 Using the camera 11 5 Opening the image archive General The image archive is a thumbnail gallery of all the images on the miniSD memory card Procedure Follow this procedure to open the image archive Push the Archive button Push the button on the navigation pad This will display the image archive You can now use the navigation pad to navigate in the archive To open a selected image push the right selection button Open Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 21 11 Using the camera 11 6 Deleting an image General You can delete one or more images from the miniSD memory card Alternative 1 Follow this procedure to delete an image Push the Archive button Push the button This will display the image archive Select the image you want to delete by using the navigation pad Push the left selection button Options Use the navigation pad to select Delete image Push the left selection button Select Push the right selection button to confirm Delete To return to live mode do one of the following a Push the Archive button Pu
63. ature it will be important to set and compensate for the reflected apparent temperature correctly Procedure Follow this procedure to set the reflected apparent temperature Push the left selection button Menu Use the navigation pad to go to Measure Push the left selection button Select This will display the Measure sub menu Use the navigation pad to select Advanced Push the left selection button Select This will display the Advanced sub menu Use the navigation pad to set the reflected apparent temperature Push the left selection button Select to confirm the choice and leave the menu SEE ALSO To read more about the reflected apparent temperature see section 20 Thermo graphic measurement techniques on page 124 32 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 11 Using the camera 11 17 Resetting the camera General If you need to reset the camera there is a reset button inside the battery compartment NOTE Do not use a metal or other conductive tool to reset the camera Procedure Follow this procedure to reset the camera Open the battery compartment cover To locate the reset button see the figure below T630179 a1 Use a non conductive tool to push reset button The camera will now be reset Publ No 559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 33 11 Using the camera 11 18 Finding the serial number of the c
64. be true only until 1830 when the Italian investigator Melloni made his great discovery that naturally occurring rock salt NaCl which was available in large enough natural crystals to be made into lenses and prisms is remarkably transparent to the infrared The result was that rock salt became the principal infrared optical material and remained so for the next hundred years until the art of synthetic crystal growing was mastered in the 1930 s 130 Publ No 559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 21 History of infrared technology 10399103 a1 Figure 21 3 Macedonio Melloni 1798 1854 Thermometers as radiation detectors remained unchallenged until 1829 the year Nobili invented the thermocouple Herschel s own thermometer could be read to 0 2 C 0 036 F and later models were able to be read to 0 05 C 0 09 F Then a breakthrough occurred Melloni connected a number of thermocouples in series to form the first thermopile The new device was at least 40 times as sensitive as the best thermometer of the day for detecting heat radiation capable of detecting the heat from a person standing three meters away The first so called heat picture became possible in 1840 the result of work by Sir John Herschel son of the discoverer of the infrared and a famous astronomer in his own right Based upon the differential evaporation of a thin film of oil when exposed to a heat pattern focused upon it th
65. bject to U S export jurisdiction You agree to comply with all applicable international and national laws that apply to the SOFTWARE including the U S Export Administration Regulations as well as end user end use and destination restrictions issued by U S and other governments For additional information see http www microsoft com exporting Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 vi Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 Table of contents 10 11 12 13 14 Warnings amp Cautlons oreet teer deter peace vc eap Ud Rea ea va a RR CERE R dd 1 Notice to user nsn enema itin eme ite ei ee era 3 Customer help cote e NAE e er eh n cer aid tread E need 4 Documentation updates sssssssssssseeeeeeneeeeeeeenennennennen rennen nnne enne 5 Important note about this manual sssssss nemen 6 Quick Start Gulde 0 de E HR tete e EE ele rd ds 7 Packing iSt soccorso Sacco patur lates dare mena renin c cn TIENI De 9 Camera parts ane n ei oem EH eg 10 Screen elements osiin eoe ete a Le TE TREAT HEATH t S Tete annie eet 13 Connectors and storage media ssssssssssssssseseeenneneeneneenenrenenreennnnnnna 15 Using the camera niii nette rettet etii tee te deerit ada Fo Ni ie 16 11 1 Installing the battery sssssssseennnnnennnnen nennen nnne nnne nnn 16 11 2 Chargin
66. button Select This will display the Settings sub menu Use the navigation pad to select the setting you want to change Push the left selection button Select then use the navigation pad to select a new setting Push the left selection button Select to confirm the choice and leave the submenu or push the right selection button Close to leave the menu 28 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 11 Using the camera 11 13 General When to use Locked mode Procedure Changing the image mode The camera can operate in two different image modes Image mode Explanation In Auto mode the cam era is continuously auto adjusted for best image brightness and contrast Locked In Locked mode the camera locks the temper ature span and the tem perature level A typical situation when you would want to use Locked mode is when looking for temperature anomalies in two items of similar design or construction For example if you are looking at two cables where you suspect one is overheated working in Locked mode will clearly show that one is overheated The higher temper ature in that cable would create a lighter color for the higher temperature If you use Auto mode instead the color for the two items will appear the same To switch between Auto mode and Locked mode push the right selection button Auto Locked A padlock icon amp indicates th
67. cating film on Ni base Ni 20 T 0 05 base only Oil lubricating thick coating 20 T 0 82 Paint 8 different colors 70 LW 0 92 0 94 and qualities Paint 8 different colors 70 SW 0 88 0 96 and qualities Paint Aluminum various 50 100 iT 0 27 0 67 ages Paint cadmium yellow T 0 28 0 33 Paint chrome green T 0 65 0 70 Paint cobalt blue i 0 7 0 8 Paint oi 17 SW 0 87 Paint oil black flat 20 SW 0 94 Paint oil black gloss 20 SW 0 92 Paint oil gray flat 20 SW 0 97 Paint oil gray gloss 20 SW 0 96 Paint oil various colors 100 T 0 92 0 96 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 159 24 Emissivity tables Paint oil based average 100 T 0 94 2 of 16 colors Paint plastic black 20 SW 0 95 6 Paint plastic white 20 SW 0 84 6 Paper 4 different colors 70 LW 0 92 0 94 9 Paper 4 different colors 70 SW 0 68 0 74 9 Paper black T 0 90 1 Paper black dull T 0 94 1 Paper black dull 70 LW 0 89 9 Paper black dull 70 SW 0 86 9 Paper blue dark T 0 84 1 Paper coated with black T 0 93 1 lacquer Paper green T 0 85 1 Paper red T 0 76 1 Paper white 20 T 0 7 0 9 1 Paper white 3 different 70 LW 0 88 0 90 9 glosses Paper white 3 different 70 SW 0 76 0 78 9 glosses Paper white bond 20 T 0 93 2 Paper yellow T 0 72 1 Plaster 17 SW 0 86 5 Plaster plasterboard un 20 SW 0 90 6 treated Plaster rough coat 20 T 0 91 2 Plastic glass fibre lami 70 LW 0 91 9 nate printe
68. ch a standard can be chosen by the plant s circum stances Very often however temperatures are predicted for 10096 load A standard makes it easier to compare the faults over time and thus to make a more complete classification 17 2 5 Priority Based on the classification of the defects the maintenance manager gives the defects a repair priority Very often the information gathered during the infrared survey is put together with complementary information on the equipment collected by other means such as vibration monitoring ultrasound or the preventive maintenance scheduled Even if the IR inspection is quickly becoming the most used method of collecting in formation about electrical components safely with the equipment under normal oper ating conditions there are many other sources of information the maintenance or the production manager has to consider The priority of repair should therefore not be a task for the IR camera operator in the normal case If a critical situation is detected during the inspection or during the classification of the defects the attention of the maintenance manager should of course be drawn to it but the responsibility for determining the urgency of the repair should be his 17 2 6 Repair To repair the known defects is the most important function of preventive maintenance However to assure production at the right time or at the right cost can also be impor tant goals for a maintenance group The info
69. creases further In fact the definition of the so called color temperature of an object is the temperature to which a blackbody would have to be heated to have the same appearance Now consider three expressions that describe the radiation emitted from a blackbody 22 3 1 Planck s law 10399203 a1 Figure 22 3 Max Planck 1858 1947 Max Planck 1858 1947 was able to describe the spectral distribution of the radiation from a blackbody by means of the following formula rhe x10 Watt m um Blackbody spectral radiant emittance at wavelength A Velocity of light 2 3 x 108 m s Planck s constant 6 6 x 1034 Joule sec Boltzmann s constant 1 4 x 10 23 Joule K Absolute temperature K of a blackbody Wavelength um Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 135 22 Theory of thermography The factor 10 is used since spectral emittance in the curves is expressed in Watt m um Planck s formula when plotted graphically for various temperatures produces a family of curves Following any particular Planck curve the spectral emittance is zero at A 0 then increases rapidly to a maximum at a wavelength max and after passing it approaches zero again at very long wavelengths The higher the temperature the shorter the wavelength at which maximum occurs 10327103 a4 Figure 22 4 Blackbody spectral radiant emittance according to Planck s law
70. cted apparent temperature Use one of the following two methods to determine reflected apparent temperature 20 2 1 1 1 Method 1 Direct method 1 Look for possible reflection sources considering that the incident angle reflection angle a b 10588903 a1 Figure 20 1 1 Reflection source 2 If the reflection source is a spot source modify the source by obstructing it using a piece if cardboard 10589103 a2 Figure 20 2 1 Reflection source Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 125 20 Thermographic measurement techniques 3 Measure the radiation intensity apparent temperature from the reflecting source using the following settings 1 Emissivity 1 0 LI Donj O You can measure the radiation intensity using one of the following two methods 10589003 a2 Figure 20 3 1 Reflection source Note Using a thermocouple to measure reflected apparent temperature is not recom mended for two important reasons A thermocouple does not measure radiation intensity A thermocouple requires a very good thermal contact to the surface usually by gluing and covering the sensor by a thermal isolator 20 2 1 1 2 Method 2 Reflector method 1 Crumble up a large piece of aluminum foil 2 Uncrumble the aluminum foil and attach it to a piece of cardboard of the same size 3 Put the piece of cardboard in front of the object yo
71. ctor after IP17 01 Insulation thickness to give this level of performance mm Local U value W m K UKTA TN1 surface factor UKTA TN1 surface factor outside Notes to the table 1 Values of surface resistances taken from ADL2 2001 are Inside surface 0 13 m2K W Outside surface 0 04 m K W These originate from BS EN ISO 6946 BN EN ISO 6946 1997 Building components and building elements Thermal resistance and thermal transmittance Calculation method Thermal insulation used here is assumed to have a conductivity of 0 03 W m K 3 The difference in temperature between an anomaly and the good areas is 1 2 de grees on the outside and 4 1 degrees on the inside 4 The UKTA TN1 surface temperature factor for internal surveys is Fsi Tsia Ts0 Tsi Tso where Tia internal surface temperature at anomaly Tso external surface temperature good area T internal surface temperature good area 5 The UKTA TN1 surface temperature factor for external surveys is Fso Tsoa Tsi Tso Tsi where Tsoa external surface temperature at anomaly N 16 4 8 4 3 Selecting maximum acceptable defect area The allowable area of defect is a quality control issue It can be argued that there should be no area on which condensation mould growth or defective insulation will occur and any such anomalies should be included in the report However a commonly used value of 0 196 of the building exposed surface area is general
72. d 106 17 5 5 Varying cooling conditions 107 17 5 6 Resistance variations c cece cece esses teeeneteeeees 108 17 5 7 Overheating in one part as a result of a fault in another 108 17 6 Disturbance factors at thermographic inspection of electrical installations 110 17 6 WIFIGL S sc seres ene tts anes dece tacts casas otro end ta etie vec Statens alia PLUS Sevres 110 17 6 2 Raln and SnOW e rect do e rcd a n E Pee EA SE Sed 110 17 6 9 Bistance to oDJect nece eene t e d a dona dd 111 17 6 4 Object size 112 17 7 Practical advice for the thermographer 114 17 7 4 From cold to hot 114 A722 RAIN SHOWSISS coii erc tecti suec nia et ue nia IL D eL an LUE LR 114 17 7 9 CEMISSIVILY noter vec bias tyre ee vp ba bete pe oe euer tv rae e cd 114 17 7 4 Reflected apparent temperature sss 115 17 7 5 Objecttoo far away oec ede eve ne e ea de e aie a d DL Ud 115 18 About FEIR Systems mirida a a ehe dendi imei iei eris 116 18 1 More than just an infrared camera sse teens 117 18 2 Sharing our knowledge 18 8 Supporting our customers 18 4 A few images from our facilities sese tntnnnea Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 ix AQ GIOSSARY AD 120 20 Thermographic measurement techniques 124
73. d circ board Plastic glass fibre lami 70 SW 0 94 9 nate printed circ board 160 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 24 Emissivity tables Plastic polyurethane isola 70 LW 0 55 9 tion board Plastic polyurethane isola 70 SW 0 29 9 tion board Plastic PVC plastic floor 70 LW 0 93 9 dull structured Plastic PVC plastic floor 70 SW 0 94 9 dull structured Platinum 17 T 0 016 4 Platinum 22 T 0 03 4 Platinum 100 T 0 05 4 Platinum 260 T 0 06 4 Platinum 538 T 0 10 4 Platinum 1000 1500 T 0 14 0 18 1 Platinum 1094 T 0 18 4 Platinum pure polished 200 600 T 0 05 0 10 1 Platinum ribbon 900 1100 T 0 12 0 17 1 Platinum wire 50 200 T 0 06 0 07 1 Platinum wire 500 1000 T 0 10 0 16 1 Platinum wire 1400 i 0 18 1 Porcelain glazed 20 T 0 92 1 Porcelain white shiny T 0 70 0 75 1 Rubber hard 20 T 0 95 1 Rubber soft gray rough 20 Y 0 95 1 Sand T 0 60 1 Sand 20 T 0 90 2 Sandstone polished 19 LLW 0 909 8 Sandstone rough 19 LLW 0 935 8 Silver polished 100 T 0 03 2 Silver pure polished 200 600 T 0 02 0 03 1 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 161 24 Emissivity tables Skin human 32 T 0 98 2 Slag boiler 0 100 T 0 97 0 93 1 Slag boiler 200 500 T 0 89 0 78 1 Slag boiler 600 1200 T 0 76 0 70 1 Slag boiler 1400 1800 T 0 69 0 67 1 Snow See Water
74. ding s enclosing surfaces depending on wind effects ventilation and internal external temperature difference 1 Wind direction T Thermodynamic air temper ature outdoors in K T Thermodynamic air temperature indoors in K If the whole of the dynamic pressure becomes static pressure then C 1 Examples of stress concentration factor distributions for a building with various wind directions are shown in the figure on page 78 The wind therefore causes an internal negative pressure on the windward side and an internal positive pressure on the leeward side The air pressure indoors depends on the wind conditions leaks in the building and how these are distributed in relation to the wind direction If the leaks in the building are evenly distributed the internal pressure may vary by 0 2 pai If most of the leaks are on the windward side the internal pressure increases somewhat In the opposite case with most of the leaks on the leeward side the internal pressure falls Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 77 16 Introduction to building thermography 10551903 a1 v 0 77 0 01 gt v 90 ae 0 65 0 47 0 65 0 43 0 77 0 50 0 60 T 0 72 v v 30 0 18 0 63 0 45 0 45 0 39 0 11 Figure 16 4 Stress concentration factor C distributions for various wind directions and wind velocities v relative to a building Wind conditions can vary substantially over ti
75. ding survey External inspec tions for example may be influenced by radiation emissions and reflections from adjacent buildings or a cold clear sky and even more significantly the heating effect that the sun may have on surface Additionally where background temperatures differ from air temperatures either inter nally or externally by more than 5 K then background temperatures should be mea sured on all effected surfaces to allow surface temperature to be measured with suf ficient accuracy 16 4 8 6 Survey and analysis The following provides some operational guidance to the thermographic operator The survey must collect sufficient thermographic information to demonstrate that all surfaces have been inspected in order that all thermal anomalies are reported and evaluated Initially environmental data must be collected as with any thermographic survey in cluding Internal temperature in the region of the anomaly External temperature in the region of the anomaly Emissivity of the surface Background temperature Distance from the surface By interpolation determine the threshold temperature to be used For internal surveys the threshold surface temperature Tsia is Tsia fgi T si Tso Tso The thermographer will be looking for evidence of surface temperature below this threshold For external surveys the threshold temperature Tsoa is Tsoa fa Tao Tg Ti The thermographer will be looking for evidenc
76. e Locked mode Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 29 11 Using the camera 11 14 General Procedure SEE ALSO Setting the surface properties To measure temperatures accurately the camera must know what kind of surface you are measuring The easiest way to do this is to set the surface property on the Measure menu You can choose between the following surface properties Matt Semi matt Semi glossy Glossy Follow this procedure to set the surface property Push the left selection button Menu Use the navigation pad to go to Measure Push the left selection button Select This will display the Measure sub menu On the Measure menu use the navigation pad to select a surface property Push the left selection button Select to confirm the choice and leave the menu For more precise measurements see the following sections Section 11 15 Changing the emissivity on page 31 a Section 11 16 Changing the reflected apparent temperature on page 32 30 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 11 Using the camera 11 15 General Procedure SEE ALSO Changing the emissivity For very precise measurements you may need to set the emissivity instead of se lecting a surface property You also need to understand how emissivity and reflectiv ity affect measurements rather than just sim
77. e copyrighted to the follow ing organizations and companies FORMAS The Swedish Research Council for Environment Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning Stockholm Sweden ITC Infrared Training Center Boston MA United States Stockton Infrared Thermographic Services Inc Randleman NC United States Professional Investigative Engineers Westminster CO United States United Kingdom Thermography Association UKTA 16 1 2 Training amp certification Carrying out building thermography inspections requires substantial training and experience and may require certification from a national or regional stan dardization body This section is provided only as an introduction to building thermography The user is strongly recommended to attend relevant training courses For more information about infrared training visit the following website http www infraredtraining com 16 1 3 National or regional building codes The commented building structures in this chapter may differ in construction from country to country For more information about construction details and standards of procedure always consult national or regional building codes 16 2 Important note All camera functions and features that are described in this section may not be sup ported by your particular camera configuration 48 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography 16 3 Typica
78. e emissivity tables sss 149 24 3 aDbl68 nonem nere tete cn AI n ADIT TA et UN Dd tus Dire 150 X Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 WARNING CAUTION Warnings amp Cautions This equipment generates uses and can radiate radio frequency energy and if not installed and used in accordance with the instruction manual may cause in terference to radio communications It has been tested and found to comply with the limits for a Class A computing device pursuant to Subpart J of Part 15 of FCC Rules which are designed to provide reasonable protection against such interfer ence when operated in a commercial environment Operation of this equipment in a residential area is likely to cause interference in which case the user at his own expense will be required to take whatever measures may be required to correct the interference Applies only to cameras with laser pointer Do not look directly into the laser beam The laser beam can cause eye irritation Applies only to cameras with battery a Do not disassemble or do a modification to the battery The battery contains safety and protection devices which if they become damaged can cause the battery to become hot or cause an explosion or an ignition a lfthere is a leak from the battery and the fluid gets into your eyes do not rub your eyes Flush well with water and immediately get medical care The battery fluid can cause injury t
79. e have p l For a graybody radiator the Stefan Boltzmann formula becomes W ec T Watt m This states that the total emissive power of a graybody is the same as a blackbody at the same temperature reduced in proportion to the value of from the graybody 140 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 22 Theory of thermography 10401203 a2 Figure 22 8 Spectral radiant emittance of three types of radiators 1 Spectral radiant emittance 2 Wavelength 3 Blackbody 4 Selective radiator 5 Graybody 10327303 a4 Figure 22 9 Spectral emissivity of three types of radiators 1 Spectral emissivity 2 Wavelength 3 Blackbody 4 Graybody 5 Selective radiator 22 4 Infrared semi transparent materials Consider now a non metallic semi transparent body let us say in the form of a thick flat plate of plastic material When the plate is heated radiation generated within its volume must work its way toward the surfaces through the material in which it is partially absorbed Moreover when it arrives at the surface some of it is reflected back into the interior The back reflected radiation is again partially absorbed but Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 141 22 Theory of thermography some of it arrives at the other surface through which most of it escapes part of it is reflected back again Although the progressive r
80. e of surface temperature above this threshold Images of anomalies must be captured in such a way that they are suitable for analysis The image is square to any features of the wall or roof The viewing angle is nearly perpendicular to the surface being imaged Interfering sources of infrared radiation such as lights heat emitters electric conductors re flective elements are minimised The method of analysis will depend somewhat on analysis software used but the key stages are as follows Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 89 16 Introduction to building thermography Produce an image of each anomaly or cluster of anomalies Use a software analysis tool to enclose the anomalous area within the image taking care not to include construction details that are to be excluded Calculate the area below the threshold temperature for internal surveys or above the threshold temperature for external surveys This is the defect area Some anomalies that appeared to be defects at the time of the survey may not show defect areas at this stage Add the defect areas from all the images A Calculate the total area of exposed building fabric This is the surface area of all the walls and roof It is conventional to use the external surface area For a simple shape building this is calculated from overall width length and height A 2h L w Lw Identify the critical defect area A Provi
81. e products herein are either registered trademarks or trademarks of FLIR Systems and or its subsidiaries All other trademarks trade names or company names referenced herein are used for identification only and are the property of their respective owners Quality assurance The Quality Management System under which these products are developed and manufactured has been certified in accordance with the ISO 9001 standard FLIR Systems is committed to a policy of continuous development therefore we reserve the right to make changes and improvements on any of the products described in this manual without prior notice Patents One or several of the following patents or design patents apply to the products and or features described in this manual 0002258 2 000279476 0001 000439161 000499579 0001 000653423 000726344 000859020 000889290 001106306 0001 0101577 5 0102150 0 0200629 4 0300911 5 0302837 0 1144833 1182246 1182620 1188086 1263438 1285345 1287138 1299699 1325808 1336775 1365299 1678485 1732314 200530018812 0 200830143636 7 2106017 235308 3006596 3006597 466540 483782 484155 518836 60004227 8 60122153 2 60200401 1681 5 08 6707044 68657 7034300 7110035 7154093 7157705 7237946 7312822 7332716 7336823 7544944 75530 7667198 7809258 7826736 D540838 D549758 D579475 D584755 D599 392 DI6702302 9 DI6703574 4 DI6803572 1 DI6803853 4 DM 057692 DM 061609 ZL00809178 1 ZL01823221 3 ZL01823226 4
82. e thermal image could be seen by reflected light where the interference effects of the oil film made the image visible to the eye Sir John also managed to obtain a primitive record of the thermal image on paper which he called a thermograph 10399003 a2 Figure 21 4 Samuel P Langley 1834 1906 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 191 21 History of infrared technology The improvement of infrared detector sensitivity progressed slowly Another major breakthrough made by Langley in 1880 was the invention of the bolometer This consisted of a thin blackened strip of platinum connected in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge circuit upon which the infrared radiation was focused and to which a sensitive galvanometer responded This instrument is said to have been able to detect the heat from a cow at a distance of 400 meters An English scientist Sir James Dewar first introduced the use of liquefied gases as cooling agents such as liquid nitrogen with a temperature of 196 C 320 8 F in low temperature research In 1892 he invented a unique vacuum insulating container in which it is possible to store liquefied gases for entire days The common thermos bottle used for storing hot and cold drinks is based upon his invention Between the years 1900 and 1920 the inventors of the world discovered the infrared Many patents were issued for devices to detect personnel artillery aircraft ships
83. e wall structure under investigation and the conditions under which the field mea surement was taken An infrared image of the building element under investigation is then compared with the selected infrared image Any deviation that cannot be ex plained by the design of the structure or the measurement conditions is noted as a suspected insulation defect The nature and extent of the defect is normally determined using comparison infrared images showing various defects If no suitable comparison infrared image is available evaluation and assessment are done on the basis of experience This requires more precise reasoning during the analysis When assessing an infrared image the following should be looked at Uniformity of brightness in infrared images of surface areas where there are no thermal bridges Regularity and occurrence of cooled surface areas e g at studding and corners Contours and characteristic shapes in the cooled surface area Measured temperature differences between the structure s normal surface temper ature and the selected cooled surface area Continuity and uniformity of the isotherm curve on the surface of the structure In the camera software the isotherm function is called Isotherm or Color alarm de pending on camera model 82 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography Deviations and irregularities in the appearance of the infrar
84. ebruary 4 2011 19 Glossary Term or expression Explanation external optics Extra lenses filters heat shields etc that can be put between the camera and the object being measured filter A material transparent only to some of the infrared wavelengths FOV Field of view The horizontal angle that can be viewed through an IR lens FPA Focal plane array A type of IR detector graybody An object that emits a fixed fraction of the amount of energy of a blackbody for each wavelength IFOV Instantaneous field of view A measure of the geometrical reso image correction internal or external infrared IR isotherm isothermal cavity Laser LocatlR lution of an IR camera Away of compensating for sensitivity differences in various parts of live images and also of stabilizing the camera Non visible radiation having a wavelength from about 2 13 um infrared A function highlighting those parts of an image that fall above below or between one or more temperature intervals A bottle shaped radiator with a uniform temperature viewed through the bottleneck An electrically powered light source on the camera that emits laser radiation in a thin concentrated beam to point at certain parts of the object in front of the camera laser pointer level An electrically powered light source on the camera that emits laser radiation in a thin concentrated beam to point at certain parts of the object in fr
85. ection amp detection of water damages ssssssssssseeneneneneenenn nn eene nnne 49 16 3 1 3 Guidelines for detection of air infiltration amp insulation deficiencies 50 16 3 2 About moisture detection sssssssssssseeeneenene enne 51 16 3 8 Moisture detection 1 Low slope commercial roofs sessses 51 16 3 3 1 General information esesssesseeeeeee tette tete 51 16 3 3 2 Safety precautions 52 16 3 3 3 Commented building structures 58 16 3 3 4 Commented infrared images 54 16 3 4 Moisture detection 2 Commercial amp residential fa ades 56 16 3 4 1 General information sse 16 3 4 2 Commented building structures 16 3 4 8 Commented infrared images sssssee 16 3 5 Moisture detection 3 Decks amp balconies 16 3 5 1 General information 16 3 5 2 Commented building structures ar 16 3 5 3 Commented infrared images cee ee cece eee teeteeeeeaeees 16 3 6 Moisture detection 4 Plumbing breaks amp leaks see 61 16 3 6 1 General information sess ai 61 16 3 6 Commented infrared images sss 62 16 3 7 Air infiltration seeenees 64 16 3 7 1 General information 64 16 3 7 2 Commented building structures 64 16 3
86. ed image often indicate insulation defects There may obviously be considerable variations in the appearance of infrared images of structures with insulation defects Certain types of insulation defects have a characteristic shape on the infrared image Section 16 3 Typical field investigations on page 49 shows examples of interpreta tions of infrared images When taking infrared images of the same building the infrared images from different areas should be taken with the same settings on the infrared camera as this makes comparison of the various surface areas easier 16 4 7 Humidity amp dew point 16 4 7 1 Relative amp absolute humidity Humidity can be expressed in two different ways either as relative humidity or as absolute humidity Relative humidity is expressed in percent of how much water a certain volume of air can hold at a certain temperature while absolute humidity is expressed in percent water by weight of material The latter way to express humidity is common when measuring humidity in wood and other building materials The higher the temperature of air the larger the amount of water this certain volume of air can hold 16 4 7 2 Definition of dew point Dew point is the temperature at which the humidity in a certain volume of air will condense as liquid water 16 4 8 Excerpt from Technical Note Assessing thermal bridging and insulation continuity UK example 16 4 8 1 Credits This Technical Note was produced
87. eflections become weaker and weaker they must all be added up when the total emittance of the plate is sought When the resulting geometrical series is summed the effective emissivity of a semi transparent plate is obtained as 1 amp 1 7 l pr A Cy When the plate becomes opaque this formula is reduced to the single formula amp 1 p This last relation is a particularly convenient one because it is often easier to measure reflectance than to measure emissivity directly 142 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 23 The measurement formula As already mentioned when viewing an object the camera receives radiation not only from the object itself It also collects radiation from the surroundings reflected via the object surface Both these radiation contributions become attenuated to some extent by the atmosphere in the measurement path To this comes a third radiation contribution from the atmosphere itself This description of the measurement situation as illustrated in the figure below is so far a fairly true description of the real conditions What has been neglected could for instance be sun light scattering in the atmosphere or stray radiation from intense ra diation sources outside the field of view Such disturbances are difficult to quantify however in most cases they are fortunately small enough to be neglected In case they are not negligible the measurement conf
88. er class of seriousness So the distance setting must definitely not be neglected 10714403 a3 34 3 C 34 9 C nor sra 30 AR 30 T p D 25 25 J s 20 Ly BEEN 05 19 4 C Figure 17 18 LEFT Incorrect distance setting RIGHT Correct distance setting The images below show the temperature readings from a blackbody at 85 C 185 F at increasing distances 10714503 a3 ROI gR MET ARO1 853 C gem ARO1 8LB C i i i Figure 17 19 Temperature readings from a blackbody at 85 C 185 F at increasing distances 798 C Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 111 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations The measured average temperatures are from left to right 85 3 C 185 5 F 85 3 C 185 5 F 84 8 C 184 6 F 84 8 C 184 6 F 84 8 C 184 6 F and 84 3 C 183 7 F from a blackbody at 85 C 185 F The ther mograms are taken with a 12 lens The distances are 1 2 3 4 5 and 10 meters 3 7 10 13 16 and 33 ft The correction for the distance has been meticulously set and works because the object is big enough for correct measurement 17 6 4 Object size The second series of images below shows the same but with the normal 24 lens Here the measured average temperatures of the blackbody at 85 C 185 F are 84 2 C 183 6 F 83 7 C 182 7 F 83 3 C 181 9 F 83 3 C 181 9 F 83 4
89. era parts Figure 10781003 a1 5 6 7 8 Explanation This table explains the figure above 1 Archive button Function Push to open the image archive 2 Left arrow button on the navigation pad Function Push to go left in menus submenus and dialog boxes a Push to navigate in the image archive 3 Left selection button This button is context sensitive and the current function is displayed above the button on the screen 4 button on the navigation pad Function a Push to go up in menus submenus and dialog boxes a Push to display the image archive after having pushed the Archive button a Push to increase change the value Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 11 8 Camera parts Right arrow button on the navigation pad Function Pushto go right in menus submenus and dialog boxes Pushto navigate in the image archive Right selection button This button is context sensitive and the current function is displayed above the button on the screen On Off button Function a Push to turn on the camera Push and hold down for more than one second to turn off the camera button on navigation pad Function Push to go down in menus submenus and dialog boxes Push to decrease change the value 12 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENG
90. erature reflection relative humidity A temperature which the ordinary measured values can be compared with The amount of radiation reflected by an object relative to the received radiation A number between 0 and 1 Relative humidity represents the ratio between the current water vapour mass in the air and the maximum it may contain in satu ration conditions saturation color span spectral radiant emittance temperature difference or difference of temperature The areas that contain temperatures outside the present lev el span settings are colored with the saturation colors The sat uration colors contain an overflow color and an underflow color There is also a third red saturation color that marks every thing saturated by the detector indicating that the range should probably be changed The interval of the temperature scale usually expressed as a signal value Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time area and wavelength W m um A value which is the result of a subtraction between two temper ature values temperature range The current overall temperature measurement limitation of an IR camera Cameras can have several ranges Expressed as two blackbody temperatures that limit the current calibration temperature scale thermogram The way in which an IR image currently is displayed Expressed as two temperature values limiting the colors infrared image
91. ermal insulation characteristics for the wall according to the design can be converted into an expected surface temperature dis tribution for the surface under investigation if the measuring conditions at the time when the measurements are taken are known Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 81 16 Introduction to building thermography In practice the method involves the following Laboratory or field tests are used to produce an expected temperature distribution in the form of typical or comparative infrared images for common wall structures com prising both defect free structures and structures with in built defects Examples of typical infrared images are shown in section 16 3 Typical field investi gations on page 49 If infrared images of structural sections taken during field measurements are intended for use as comparison infrared images then the structure s composition the way it was built and the measurement conditions at the time the infrared image was taken must be known in detail and documented In order during thermography to be able to comment on the causes of deviations from the expected results the physical metrological and structural engineering pre requisites must be known The interpretation of infrared images taken during field measurements may be de scribed in brief as follows A comparison infrared image for a defect free structure is selected on the basis of th
92. ev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 24 Emissivity tables Brick waterproof 17 SW 0 87 Bronze phosphor bronze 70 LW 0 06 Bronze phosphor bronze 70 SW 0 08 Bronze polished 50 T 0 1 Bronze porous rough 50 150 T 0 55 Bronze powder T 0 76 0 80 Carbon candle soot 20 T 0 95 Carbon charcoal powder 1 0 96 Carbon graphite filed sur 20 T 0 98 face Carbon graphite powder T 0 97 Carbon lampblack 20 400 T 0 95 0 97 Chipboard untreated 20 SW 0 90 Chromium polished 50 T 0 10 Chromium polished 500 1000 LB 0 28 0 38 Clay fired 70 F 0 91 Cloth black 20 if 0 98 Concrete 20 T 0 92 Concrete dry 36 SW 0 95 Concrete rough 17 SW 0 97 Concrete walkway 5 LLW 0 974 Copper commercial bur 20 T 0 07 nished Copper electrolytic careful 80 T 0 018 ly polished Copper electrolytic pol 34 T 0 006 ished Copper molten 1100 1300 T 0 13 0 15 Copper oxidized 50 T 0 6 0 7 Copper oxidized black 27 T 0 78 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 1538 24 Emissivity tables Copper oxidized heavily 20 T 0 78 Copper oxidized to black T 0 88 ness Copper polished 50 100 T 0 02 Copper polished 100 T 0 03 Copper polished commer 27 T 0 03 cial Copper polished mechan 22 T 0 015 ical Copper pure carefully 22 T 0 008 prepared surface Copper scraped 27 T 0 07 Copper d
93. face temperature variations as small as 0 1 K and graphic images can be produced that visibly illustrate the distribution of temperature on building surfaces Variations in the thermal properties of building structures such as poorly fitted or missing sections of insulation cause variations in surface temperature on both sides of the structure They are therefore visible to the thermographer However many other factors such as local heat sources reflections and air leakage can also cause surface temperature variations The professional judgement of the thermographer is usually required to differentiate between real faults and other sources of temperature variation Increasingly thermo graphers are asked to justify their assessment of building structures and in the ab sence of adequate guidance it can be difficult to set definite levels for acceptable or unacceptable variation in temperature The current Standard for thermal iamging of building fabric in the UK is BS EN 13187 1999 BS EN 13187 1999 Thermal Performance of Buildings Qualitative de tection of thermal properties in building envelopes Infrared method ISO 6781 1983 modified However this leaves interpretation of the thermal image to the professional expertise of of the thermographer and provides little guidance on the demarcation between acceptable and unacceptable variations Guidance on the appearance of a range of thermal anomalies can be found in BINDT Guides to thermal
94. failed to locate this point 10398903 a1 Figure 21 2 Marsilio Landriani 1746 1815 Moving the thermometer into the dark region beyond the red end of the spectrum Herschel confirmed that the heating continued to increase The maximum point when he found it lay well beyond the red end in what is known today as the infrared wavelengths When Herschel revealed his discovery he referred to this new portion of the electro magnetic spectrum as the thermometrical spectrum The radiation itself he sometimes referred to as dark heat or simply the invisible rays lronically and contrary to popular opinion it wasn t Herschel who originated the term infrared The word only began to appear in print around 75 years later and it is still unclear who should receive credit as the originator Herschel s use of glass in the prism of his original experiment led to some early controversies with his contemporaries about the actual existence of the infrared wavelengths Different investigators in attempting to confirm his work used various types of glass indiscriminately having different transparencies in the infrared Through his later experiments Herschel was aware of the limited transparency of glass to the newly discovered thermal radiation and he was forced to conclude that optics for the infrared would probably be doomed to the use of reflective elements exclusively i e plane and curved mirrors Fortunately this proved to
95. formance infrared imaging systems and is the world leader in the design manufacture and marketing of thermal imaging systems for a wide variety of commercial industrial and government applications Today FLIR Systems embraces five major companies with outstanding achievements in infrared technology since 1958 the Swedish AGEMA Infrared Systems formerly AGA Infrared Systems the three United States companies Indigo Systems FSI and Inframetrics and the French company Cedip In November 2007 Extech Instruments was acquired by FLIR Systems T638608 a1 PATENT SPECIFICATION 1 eS TECIRIG United States Patent Office 555 55 PER JOHAN LINDBERG aod HANS GUNNER MALAMRERG 1057 624 Debs pert tl ig Combi in 5 D sciens wel vor sco a Published Feb 1 1967 Crown Copyright 1967 COMPLETE SPECIFICATION Scanning Mechanism enska on the ax atn tinal mds slo substanti tilting the Figure 18 1 Patent documents from the early 1960s The company has sold more than 135 832 infrared cameras worldwide for applications such as predictive maintenance R amp D non destructive testing process control and automation and machine vision among many others FLIR Systems has three manufacturing plants in the United States Portland OR Boston MA Santa Barbara CA and one in Sweden Stockholm Since 2007 there is also a manufacturing plant in Tallinn Estonia Direct sales offices in Belgium Brazil 116
96. g material It may also change the surface temperature of building mate rial due to evaporative cooling Thermal conductivity is a material s ability to conduct heat while thermal mass is its ability to store heat Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 49 16 Introduction to building thermography Infrared inspection does not directly detect the presence of mold rather it may be used to find moisture where mold may develop or has already developed Mold requires temperatures between 4 C to 38 C 40 F to 100 F nutrients and moisture to grow Humidity levels above 50 can provide sufficient moisture to enable mold to grow 10556003 a1 Figure 16 2 Microscopic view of mold spore 16 3 1 3 Guidelines for detection of air infiltration amp insulation deficiencies For very accurate camera measurements take measurements of the temperature and enter this value in the camera It is recommended that there is a difference in pressure between the outside and the inside of the building structure This facilitates the analysis of the infrared images and reveals deficiencies that would not be visible otherwise Although a negative pressure of between 10 and 50 Pa is recommended carrying out the inspection at a lower negative pressure may be acceptable To do this close all windows doors and ventilation ducts and then run the kitchen exhaust fan for some time to reach a negative pressure of 5 10 Pa appl
97. g tihe batery naiiai inocente heute beet 17 Ad Saving an imagE ana haaa Ane E inen eite 19 11 4 Recalling an image isinsin inniti niedi rrunni n araa nnne nnne nnne 20 11 5 Opening the image archive 11 6 Deleting an image 11 7 Deleting all images 28 11 8 Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter sssssssseee eene 24 11 9 Measuring a temperature using an area ssssssseene eene 25 11 10 Marking all areas above or below a set temperature level ssssssses 26 11 11 Changing the color palette 1 5 iiem nn 27 11 12 Changing the settings 28 11 13 Changing the image mode 29 11 14 Setting the surface properties 90 1115 Changing the ermissivity ii entre ee eee iieri 31 11 16 Changing the reflected apparent temperature sse 32 11 17 Resetting the camera ssssssssssssseneneeneneneeneennennennnnnennenne nnne nentes 33 11 18 Finding the serial number of the camera ssssssssssseneeeeeneeennennnnennnns 34 Cleaning the c mera sssrds harna n UR UR e EURO HR USE etd 35 12 4 Camera housing cables and other items sssssssseeeneeeeeen 35 12 2 ntrared lens 3 53 he cath tion L oo tte aS tie Lot RA Rec MALUS LRL HE LEHNT Hot bia 36 12 3 Infrared CeteCtOn si ee ete e tbe eee see e de ee e linea 37 Technical data certe deg p REI a CARE EE DEI D Een XE DD ERES 38 19 Add
98. gher temperature at a lower wind speed The empirical cor rection factor can be listed Wind speed m s Wind speed knots Correction factor The measured overheating multiplied by the correction factor gives the excess tem perature with no wind that is at 1 m s 2 knots 17 6 2 Rain and snow Rain and snow also have a cooling effect on electrical equipment Thermographic measurement can still be conducted with satisfactory results during light snowfall with dry snow and light drizzle respectively The image quality will deteriorate in heavy 110 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations snow or rain and reliable measurement is no longer possible This is mainly because a heavy snowfall as well as heavy rain is impenetrable to infrared radiation and it is rather the temperature of the snowflakes or raindrops that will be measured 17 6 3 Distance to object This image is taken from a helicopter 20 meters 66 ft away from this faulty connec tion The distance was incorrectly set to 1 meter 3 ft and the temperature was measured to 37 9 C 100 2 F The measurement value after changing the distance to 20 meters 66 ft which was done afterwards is shown in the image to the right where the corrected temperature is 38 8 C 101 8 F The difference is not too crucial but may take the fault into a high
99. h the left selection button Select To change the temperature level above or below which you want to mark the areas use the navigation pad 26 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 11 Using the camera 11 11 Changing the color palette General You can change the color palette that the camera uses to display different tempera tures A different palette can make it easier to analyze an image Procedure Follow this procedure to change the color palette Push the left selection button Menu Use the navigation pad to go to Color palette Push the left selection button Select This will display the Color palette submenu Use the navigation pad to select the new color palette Push the left selection button Select to confirm the choice and leave the submenu Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 27 11 Using the camera 11 12 Changing the settings General You can change a variety of settings for the camera These include the following Auto shutdown Display intensity Language Unit Time format Set time Time stamp Firmware to download program updates for your camera See http flir cus thelp com for more information Restore Procedure Follow this procedure to change a setting Push the left selection button Menu Use the navigation pad to go to Settings Push the left selection
100. he image to the left below shows a bad contact due to a loose bolt Since the bad contact is of very limited dimensions it causes overheating only in a very small spot from which the heat is spread evenly along the connecting cable Note the lower emissivity of the screw itself which makes it look slightly colder than the insulated and thereby it has a high emissivity cable insulation The image to the right shows another overheating situation this time again due to a loose connection It is an outdoor connection hence it is exposed to the cooling effect ofthe wind and itis likely that the overheating would have shown a higher temperature if mounted indoors 10714203 a3 5 0 C 34 5 C 37 1 C 19 5 C Figure 17 16 LEFT An infrared image showing bad contact due to a loose bolt RIGHT A loose outdoor connection exposed to the wind cooling effect 17 5 7 Overheating in one part as a result of a fault in another Sometimes overheating can appear in a component although that component is OK The reason is that two conductors share the load One of the conductors has an in creased resistance but the other is OK Thus the faulty component carries a lower load whereas the fresh one has to take a higher load which may be too high and which causes the increased temperature See the image 108 Publ No 559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations
101. he size of the detector elements It is typical for all infrared cameras and can not be avoided Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 113 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 17 7 Practical advice for the thermographer Working in a practical way with a camera you will discover small things that make your job easier Here are five of them to start with 17 7 1 From cold to hot You have been out with the camera at 5 C 41 F To continue your work you now have to perform the inspection indoors If you wear glasses you are used to having to wipe off condensed water or you will not be able to see anything The same thing happens with the camera To measure correctly you should wait until the camera has become warm enough for the condensation to evaporate This will also allow for the internal temperature compensation system to adjust to the changed condition 17 7 2 Rain showers If it starts raining you should not perform the inspection because the water will drasti cally change the surface temperature of the object that you are measuring Neverthe less sometimes you need to use the camera even under rain showers or splashes Protect your camera with a simple transparent polyethylene plastic bag Correction for the attenuation which is caused by the plastic bag can be made by adjusting the object distance until the temperature reading is the same as without
102. heat while others passed so much heat that he risked eye damage after only a few seconds observation Herschel was soon convinced of the necessity of setting up a systematic experiment with the objective of finding a single material that would give the desired reduction in brightness as well as the maximum reduction in heat He began the experiment by actually repeating Newton s prism experiment but looking for the heating effect rather than the visual distribution of intensity in the spectrum He first blackened the bulb of a sensitive mercury in glass thermometer with ink and with this as his radiation de tector he proceeded to test the heating effect of the various colors of the spectrum formed on the top of a table by passing sunlight through a glass prism Other ther mometers placed outside the sun s rays served as controls As the blackened thermometer was moved slowly along the colors of the spectrum the temperature readings showed a steady increase from the violet end to the red end This was not entirely unexpected since the Italian researcher Landriani in a similar experiment in 1777 had observed much the same effect It was Herschel Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 129 21 History of infrared technology however who was the first to recognize that there must be a point where the heating effect reaches a maximum and that measurements confined to the visible portion of the spectrum
103. ided that it is returned to FLIR Systems within the said one year period FLIR Systems has no other obligation or liability for defects than those set forth above No other warranty is expressed or implied FLIR Systems specifically disclaims the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose FLIR Systems shall not be liable for any direct indirect special incidental or consequential loss or damage whether based on contract tort or any other legal theory This warranty shall be governed by Swedish law Any dispute controversy or claim arising out of or in connection with this warranty shall be finally settled by arbitration in accordance with the Rules of the Arbitration Institute of the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce The place of arbitration shall be Stockholm The language to be used in the arbitral proceedings shall be English Copyright 2011 FLIR Systems All rights reserved worldwide No parts of the software including source code may be reproduced transmitted transcribed or translated into any language or computer language in any form or by any means electronic magnetic optical manual or otherwise without the prior written permission of FLIR Systems This documentation must not in whole or part be copied photocopied reproduced translated or transmitted to any electronic medium or machine readable form without prior consent in writing from FLIR Systems Names and marks appearing on th
104. ies to residential houses only A difference in temperature between the inside and the outside of 10 15 C 18 27 F is recommended Inspections can be carried out at a lower temperature difference but will make the analysis of the infrared images somewhat more difficult Avoid direct sunlight on a part of a building structure e g a fagade that is to be inspected from the inside The sunlight will heat the facade which will equalize the temperature differences on the inside and mask deficiencies in the building structure Spring seasons with low nighttime temperatures 0 C 32 F and high daytime temperatures 14 C 57 F are especially risky 50 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography 16 3 2 About moisture detection Moisture in a building structure can originate from several different sources e g External leaks such as floods leaking fire hydrants etc Internal leaks such as freshwater piping waste water piping etc Condensation which is humidity in the air falling out as liquid water due to conden sation on cold surfaces Building moisture which is any moisture in the building material prior to erecting the building structure Water remaining from firefighting As a non destructive detection method using an infrared camera has a number of advantages over other methods and a few disadvantages Advantage Disadvantage
105. iguration is likely to be such that the risk for disturbance is obvious at least to a trained operator It is then his responsibil ity to modify the measurement situation to avoid the disturbance e g by changing the viewing direction shielding off intense radiation sources etc Accepting the description above we can use the figure below to derive a formula for the calculation of the object temperature from the calibrated camera output 10400503 a1 1 T Wien 1 T Watm 1 Tam Tren fre 1 o Figure 23 1 A schematic representation of the general thermographic measurement situation 1 Surround ings 2 Object 3 Atmosphere 4 Camera Assume that the received radiation power W from a blackbody source of temperature Tsource ON short distance generates a camera output signal Uso c that is proportional to the power input power linear camera We can then write Equation 1 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 143 23 The measurement formula D sm CW T oc or with simplified notation ans za CW oiri where C is a constant Should the source be a graybody with emittance the received radiation would consequently be W ource We are now ready to write the three collected radiation power terms 1 Emission from the object TWop where is the emittance of the object and T is the transmittance of the atmosphere The object temperature is Toyj
106. in your particular country Also in many countries carrying out electrical inspections requires formal qualification Always consult national or regional electrical regulations 17 2 General information 17 2 1 Introduction Today thermography is a well established technique for the inspection of electrical installations This was the first and still is the largest the largest application of ther mography The infrared camera itself has gone through an explosive development and we can say that today the 8th generation of thermographic systems is available It all began in 1964 more than 40 years ago The technique is now established throughout the whole world Industrialized countries as well as developing countries have adopted this technique Thermography in conjunction with vibration analysis has over the latest decades been the main method for fault diagnostics in the industry as a part of the preventive maintenance program The great advantage with these methods is that it is not only possible to carry out the inspection on installations in operation normal working condition is in fact a prerequisite for a correct measurement result so the ongoing production process is not disturbed Thermographic inspection of electrical installations are used in three main areas Power generation Power transmission Power distribution that is industrial use of electrical energy The fact that these controls are carried out under normal o
107. installation of insulation batts around an attic floor beam Cool air infiltrates the structure and cools down the in side of the ceiling This kind of insulation deficiency will show up as dark areas on an infrared image Insulation deficiencies due to improper installation of insulation batts creating an air pocket on the outside of an inclined ceiling This kind of insulation deficiency will show up as dark areas on an infrared image 68 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography 16 3 8 3 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of insulation deficiencies Infrared image Comment 10553303 a1 Insulation deficiencies in an intermediate floor structure The deficiency may be due to either missing insulation batts or improperly installed in sulations batts air pockets 10553403 a1 Improperly installed fiberglass batts in a suspend ed ceiling Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 69 16 Introduction to building thermography Infrared image Comment 10553503 a1 Insulation deficiencies in an intermediate floor structure The deficiency may be due to either missing insulation batts or improperly installed in sulations batts air pockets 7O Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduct
108. ion of the data starts which will allow the correct reporting of the fault The emissivity the identification of the component and the actual working conditions together with the measured tempera ture will be used in the report In order to make it easy to identify the component a visual photo of the defect is often taken 17 2 4 Classification amp reporting Reporting has traditionally been the most time consuming part of the IR survey A one day inspection could result in one or two days work to report and classify the found defects This is still the case for many thermographers who have chosen not to use the advantages that computers and modern reporting software have brought to IR condition monitoring 94 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations The classification of the defects gives a more detailed meaning that not only takes into account the situation at the time of inspection which is certainly of great impor tance but also the possibility to normalize the over temperature to standard load and ambient temperature conditions An over temperature of 30 C 86 F is certainly a significant fault But if that over temperature is valid for one component working at 100 load and for another at 5096 load it is obvious that the latter will reach a much higher temperature should its load increase from 5096 to 10096 Su
109. ion to building thermography 16 4 Theory of building science 16 4 1 General information The demand for energy efficient constructions has increased significantly in recent times Developments in the field of energy together with the demand for pleasant indoor environments have resulted in ever greater significance having to be attached to both the function of a building s thermal insulation and airtightness and the efficiency of its heating and ventilation systems Defective insulation and tightness in highly insulated and airtight structures can have a great impact on energy losses Defects in a building s thermal insulation and airtight ness do not merely entail risk of excessive heating and maintenance costs they also create the conditions for a poor indoor climate A building s degree of insulation is often stated in the form of a thermal resistance or a coefficient of thermal transmittance U value for the various parts of the building However the stated thermal resistance values rarely provide a measure of the actual energy losses in a building Air leakage from joints and connections that are not airtight and insufficiently filled with insulation often gives rise to considerable deviations from the designed and expected values Verification that individual materials and building elements have the promised prop erties is provided by means of laboratory tests Completed buildings have to be checked and inspected in order t
110. ionship Ap gxp xh 1 2 Pa 1 Air pressure differential within the structure in Pa 9 81 m s Air density in kg m3 Thermodynamic air temperature outdoors in K Thermodynamic air temperature indoors in K Distance from the neutral zone in meters If pu 1 29 kg m density of air at a temperature of 273 K and 100 kPa this pro duces T Ap 13xh 1 T With a difference of 25 C 77 F between the ambient internal and external tem peratures the result is a differential pressure difference within the structure of about 1 Pa m difference in height 3 28 Pa ft Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 79 16 Introduction to building thermography 10552003 a1 Figure 16 5 Distribution of pressures on a building with two openings and where the external temperature is lower than the internal temperature 1 Neutral zone 2 Positive pressure 3 Negative pressure h Distance from the neutral zone in meters The position of the neutral zone may vary depending on any leaks in the building If the leaks are evenly distributed vertically this zone will be about halfway up the building If more of the leaks are in the lower part of the building the neutral zone will move downwards If more of the leaks are in the upper part it will move upwards Where a chimney opens above the roof this has a considerable effect on the position of the neutral z
111. ioxide powder T 0 84 Copper oxide red powder T 0 70 Ebonite T 0 89 Emery coarse 80 T 0 85 Enamel 20 T 0 9 Enamel lacquer 20 T 0 85 0 95 Fiber board hard untreated 20 SW 0 85 Fiber board masonite 70 LW 0 88 Fiber board masonite 70 SW 0 75 Fiber board particle board 70 LW 0 89 Fiber board particle board 70 SW 0 77 Fiber board porous untreated 20 SW 0 85 Gold polished 130 T 0 018 Gold polished carefully 200 600 T 0 02 0 03 Gold polished highly 100 T 0 02 Granite polished 20 LLW 0 849 Granite rough 21 LLW 0 879 Granite rough 4 different 70 LW 0 77 0 87 samples 154 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 24 Emissivity tables Granite rough 4 different 70 SW 0 95 0 97 samples Gypsum 20 T 0 8 0 9 Ice See Water Iron cast casting 50 T 0 81 Iron cast ingots 1000 T 0 95 Iron cast liquid 1300 T 0 28 Iron cast machined 800 1000 T 0 60 0 70 Iron cast oxidized 38 T 0 63 Iron cast oxidized 100 T 0 64 Iron cast oxidized 260 T 0 66 Iron cast oxidized 538 T 0 76 Iron cast oxidized at 600 C 200 600 T 0 64 0 78 Iron cast polished 38 T 0 21 Iron cast polished 40 LB 0 21 Iron cast polished 200 T 0 21 Iron cast unworked 900 1100 T 0 87 0 95 Iron and steel cold rolled 70 LW 0 09 Iron and steel cold rolled 70 SW 0 20 Iron and steel covered with red 20 T 0 61 0 85 rust Iron and steel electrolytic 22 T 0 05 Iron and steel electrolytic
112. itional data nete eene tere peso ESEE aa goo aec rdc Eee e dc eed 39 DImenslons nint daya Va NEA Ea tiere ehe 41 144 Camera front nece inert eene eni e te ie rere trades 41 14 2 Camera side nine cheer tae eee ee trees 42 Publ No 559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 vii 15 Application examples 9x a a ci eec rid c dee eid cud 43 15 1 Moisture amp water damage sse nete trenetetnnnnt tatnen atate inre na tein atate tna 43 15 2 Faulty contactin SOCK isunei nen eren cene e E ee A pi e rede 44 15 3 Oxidized SOoCket 5 2 eere dederint peces te reto ci EET REESE Re Ve eee eben Eee 45 15 4 Insulation deficiencies uus cene ede erae coh cena eee eure a ec a pena nee eod 46 155 Drafta ia eeen aaea ean aeaaea AA AAEE avian an eae a RE ae a E 47 16 Introduction to building thermography sssssssn enn 48 164 Disclaimer 0 eee 16 1 1 Copyright notice 16 1 2 Training amp certification m 16 1 8 National or regional building codes sss e 48 16 2 Important note ien eeiam iieri ie 48 16 3 Typical field investigations sssessseseeseeeeeee retenti tntntnnn retenta tenni tna tn insta ata tna 49 16 3 1 Guidelitrigs 5 intendi enemies 49 16 3 1 1 General guideliries 5 5 neni eie 49 16 3 1 2 Guidelines for moisture detection mold det
113. its own temperature blackbody radiator calculated atmospheric transmission cavity radiator color temperature An IR radiating equipment with blackbody properties used to calibrate IR cameras A transmission value computed from the temperature the relative humidity of air and the distance to the object A bottle shaped radiator with an absorbing inside viewed through the bottleneck The temperature for which the color of a blackbody matches a specific color conduction continuous adjust The process that makes heat diffuse into a material A function that adjusts the image The function works all the time continuously adjusting brightness and contrast according to the image content convection dual isotherm emissivity emissivity factor emittance environment Convection is a heat transfer mode where a fluid is brought into motion either by gravity or another force thereby transferring heat from one place to another An isotherm with two color bands instead of one The amount of radiation coming from an object compared to that of a blackbody A number between 0 and 1 Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time and area W m Objects and gases that emit radiation towards the object being measured estimated atmospheric transmission A transmission value supplied by a user replacing a calculated one 120 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN F
114. l Investigative 16 3 5 Moisture detection 3 Decks amp balconies 16 3 5 1 General information Although there are differences in design materials and construction decks plaza decks courtyard decks etc suffer from the same moisture and leaking problems as low slope commercial roofs Improper flashing inadequately sealed membranes and insufficient drainage may lead to substantial damage in the building structures below Balconies although smaller in size require the same care in design choice of mate rial and workmanship as any other building structure Since balconies are usually supported on one side only moisture leading to corrosion of struts and concrete re inforcement can cause problems and lead to hazardous situations 58 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography 16 3 5 2 Commented building structures This section includes a few typical examples of moisture problems on decks and balconies Structural drawing Comment 10555203 a2 Improper sealing of paving and membrane to roof outlet leading to leakage during rain No flashing at deck to wall connection leading to rain penetrating the concrete and insulation Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment 10555003 a2 Water has penetrated the concre
115. l field investigations 16 3 1 Guidelines As will be noted in subsequent sections there are a number of general guidelines the user should take heed of when carrying out building thermography inspection This section gives a summary of these guidelines 16 3 1 1 General guidelines The emissivity of the majority of building materials fall between 0 85 and 0 95 Setting the emissivity value in the camera to 0 90 can be regarded as a good starting point An infrared inspection alone should never be used as a decision point for further actions Always verify suspicions and findings using other methods such as con struction drawings moisture meters humidity amp temperature datalogging tracer gas testing etc Change level and span to thermally tune the infrared image and reveal more details The figure below shows the difference between a thermally untuned and a thermally tuned infrared image 10552103 a2 21 79 C 21 7 C r 20 r 20 r 18 15 r 16 14 9 10 0 Figure 16 1 LEFT A thermally untuned infrared image RIGHT A thermally tuned infrared image after having changed level and span 16 3 1 2 Guidelines for moisture detection mold detection amp detection of water damages Building defects related to moisture and water damages may only show up when heat has been applied to the surface e g from the sun The presence of water changes the thermal conductivity and the thermal mass of the buildin
116. less than 5 C 9 F This however need not necessarily always be the case 17 5 4 Load variations 3 phase systems are the norm in electric utilities When looking for overheated places itis easy to compare the three phases directly with each other for example cables breakers insulators An even load per phase should result in a uniform temperature pattern for all three phases A fault may be suspected in cases where the temperature of one phase differs considerably from the remaining two However you should always make sure that the load is indeed evenly distributed Looking at fixed ampere meters or using a clip on ampere meter up to 600 A will tell you 106 Publ No 559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10714003 a3 57 2 C 33 8 C 40 27 9 C 20 0 C Figure 17 14 Examples of infrared images of load variations The image to the left shows three cables next to each other They are so far apart that they can be regarded as thermally insulated from each other The one in the middle is colder than the others Unless two phases are faulty and overheated this is a typical example of a very unsymmetrical load The temperature spreads evenly along the cables which indicates a load dependent temperature increase rather than a faulty connection The image to the right shows two bundles with very different loads In fact the bu
117. ling for this problem already here by looking into some different measurement cases and compare the relative magnitudes of the three radiation terms This will give indications about when it is important to use correct values of which parameters The figures below illustrates the relative magnitudes of the three radiation contributions for three different object temperatures two emittances and two spectral ranges SW and LW Remaining parameters have the following fixed values T 0 88 Tres 20 C 68 F Tatm 20 C 68 F Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 145 23 The measurement formula It is obvious that measurement of low object temperatures are more critical than measuring high temperatures since the disturbing radiation sources are relatively much stronger in the first case Should also the object emittance be low the situation would be still more difficult We have finally to answer a question about the importance of being allowed to use the calibration curve above the highest calibration point what we call extrapolation Imagine that we in a certain case measure U 4 5 volts The highest calibration point for the camera was in the order of 4 1 volts a value unknown to the operator Thus even if the object happened to be a blackbody i e Uspj Utot we are actually performing extrapolation of the calibration curve when converting 4 5 volts into tem perature Let us
118. lished 20 T 0 07 2 Magnesium pow T 0 86 1 der Molybdenum 600 1000 T 0 08 0 13 1 Molybdenum 1500 2200 T 0 19 0 26 1 Molybdenum filament 700 2500 T 0 1 0 3 1 Mortar 17 SW 0 87 5 Mortar dry 36 SW 0 94 7 Nextel Velvet 811 Flat black 60 150 LW gt 0 97 10 and 21 Black 11 Nichrome rolled 700 T 0 25 1 Nichrome sandblasted 700 T 0 70 1 Nichrome wire clean 50 T 0 65 1 Nichrome wire clean 500 1000 T 0 71 0 79 1 Nichrome wire oxidized 50 500 T 0 95 0 98 1 Nickel bright matte 122 T 0 041 4 Nickel commercially 100 T 0 045 1 pure polished Nickel commercially 200 400 T 0 07 0 09 1 pure polished Nickel electrolytic 22 T 0 04 4 Nickel electrolytic 38 T 0 06 4 Nickel electrolytic 260 T 0 07 4 Nickel electrolytic 538 T 0 10 4 Nickel electroplated pol 20 T 0 05 2 ished Nickel electroplated on 22 T 0 045 4 iron polished Nickel electroplated on 20 T 0 11 0 40 1 iron unpolished 158 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 24 Emissivity tables Nickel electroplated on 22 T 0 11 iron unpolished Nickel oxidized 200 T 0 37 Nickel oxidized 227 T 0 37 Nickel oxidized 1227 T 0 85 Nickel oxidized at 600 C 200 600 T 0 37 0 48 Nickel polished 122 T 0 045 Nickel wire 200 1000 T 0 1 0 2 Nickel oxide 500 650 T 0 52 0 59 Nickel oxide 1000 1250 T 0 75 0 86 Oil lubricating 0 025 mm film 20 T 0 27 Oil lubricating 0 050 mm film 20 T 0 46 Oil lubricating 0 125 mm film 20 T 0 72 Oil lubri
119. ly accepted as the maximum combined defect area allowable to comply with the Building Regulations This represents one square metre in every thousand Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 87 16 Introduction to building thermography 16 4 8 4 4 Measuring surface temperature Measurement of surface temperature is the function of the infrared imaging system The trained thermographer will recognise account for and report on the variation of emissivity and reflectivity of the surfaces under consideration 16 4 8 4 5 Measuring area of the defects Measurement of defect area can be performed by pixel counting in the thermal anal ysis software or most spreadhseet packages provided that the distance from camera to object is accurately measured probably using a laser measurement system the target distance should take into account the IFOV of the imaging system any angular change between the camera and the object surface from the perpen dicular is accounted for Buildings consist of numerous construction features that are not conducive to quan titative surveys including windows roof lights luminaries heat emitters cooling equipment service pipes and electrical conductors However the joints and connec tions between these objects and the building envelope should be considered as part of the survey 16 4 8 5 Conditions and equipment To achieve best results from a thermal insulation survey i
120. m room nm eor om ou om an au vo mo wa m wo oz cse oo ea su no zero wef m frov e avo rao s ee e n m mm _ DESSERT TIE Tu E D TERT I RT bor o mee e Ere es vars ex oor osl Sm E m E sae ave rm ERE 40 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 14 Dimensions 14 1 Camera front Figure 10780603 a1 78 8 mm 3 10 222 1 mm 8 74 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 41 14 Dimensions 14 2 Camera side Figure 10780703 a1 83 0 mm 3 27 42 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 15 15 1 General NOTE Figure Application examples Moisture amp water damage It is often possible to detect moisture and water damage in a house by using an in frared camera This is partly because the damaged area has a different heat conduc tion property and partly because it has a different thermal capacity to store heat than the surrounding material Many factors can come into play as to how moisture or water damage will appear in an infrared image For example heating and cooling of these parts takes place at different rates depend ing on the material and the time of day For this reason it is important that other methods are used as well to check for moisture or water damage The image below shows extensi
121. me and between relatively closely situ ated locations In thermography such variations can have a clear effect on the mea surement results It has been demonstrated experimentally that the differential pressure on a facade exposed to an average wind force of about 5 m s 16 3 ft s will be about 10 Pa Mechanical ventilation results in a constant internal negative or positive pressure depending on the direction of the ventilation Research has showed that the negative pressure caused by mechanical extraction kitchen fans in small houses is usually between 5 and 10 Pa Where there is mechanical extraction of ventilation air e g in multi dwelling blocks the negative pressure is somewhat greater 10 50 Pa Where there is so called balanced ventilation mechanically controlled supply and extract air this is normally adjusted to produce a slight negative pressure inside 3 5 Pa The differential pressure caused by temperature differences the so called chimney effect airtightness differences of air at different temperatures means that there is a negative pressure in the building s lower part and a positive pressure in the upper 78 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography part At a certain height there is a neutral zone where the pressures on the inside and outside are the same see the figure on page 80 This differential pressure may be described by the relat
122. ments for basing thermographic surveys on surface temperatures alone with no need to measure air temperature Stratification inside the building makes reference to air internal temperatures very difficult Is it mean air temperature low level high level or temperature at the level of the anomaly and how far from the wall should it be measured Radiation effects such as radiation to the night sky make use of of external air temperature difficult It is not unusual for the outside surface of building fabric to be below air temperature because of radiation to the sky which may be as low as 50 C 58 F This can be seen with the naked eye by the fact that dew and frost often appear on building surfaces even when the air temperature does not drop below the dewpoint tshould be noted that the concept of U values is based on environmental temper atures on each side of the structure This is neglected by many inexperienced analysts The two temperatures that are firmly related to the transfer of heat through building fabric and any solid are the surface temperatures on each side Therefore by referring to surface temperatures the survey is more repeatable The surface temperatures used are the averages of surface temperatures on the same material in an area near the anomaly on the inside and the outside of the fabric Together with the temperature of the anomaly a threshold level can be set dependent on these temperatures using
123. mory card may have a higher capacity than 5 000 images saving more than that number of images severely slows down file management on the memory card Note There is no upper limit to the memory size of the miniSD memory card For best performance memory cards should be formatted to the FAT FAT16 file system Using FAT32 formatted memory cards may result in inferior performance To format a memory card to FAT FAT16 follow this procedure Insert the memory card into a card reader that is connected to your com puter In Windows Explorer select My Computer and right click the memory card Select Format Under File system select FAT Click Start The naming convention for images is IR xxxx jpg where xxxx is a unique counter When you select Restore the camera resets the counter and assigns the next highest free file name for the new file To save an image pull the Save trigger Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 19 11 Using the camera 11 4 General Procedure Recalling an image When you save an image it is stored on the removable miniSD memory card To display the image again you can recall it from the minisD memory card Follow this procedure to recall an image Push the Archive button Do one of the following a Push the navigation pad left right to select the image you want to view a Push the button use the navig
124. nd labor Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 61 16 Introduction to building thermography 16 3 6 2 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of plumbing breaks amp leaks Infrared image Comment Moisture migration tracking along steel joist chan nels inside ceiling of a single family home where a plumbing line had ruptured 10555603 a1 Water from plumbing leak was found to have mi grated farther than originally anticipated by the contractor during remediation techniques of cutting back carpet and installing dehumidifiers 62 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography Infrared image Comment on The infrared image of this vinyl sided 3 floor apartment house clearly shows the path of a seri ous leak from a washing machine on the third floor which is completely hidden within the wall 10555803 a1 Water leak due to improper sealing between floor drain and tiles Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 63 16 Introduction to building thermography 16 3 7 Air infiltration 16 3 7 1 General information Due to the wind pressure on a building temperature differences between the inside and the outside of the building and the fact that most buildings use exhaust air terminal devices to extract used air f
125. ndle to the right carries next to no load Those which carry a considerable current load are about 5 C 9 F hotter than those which do not No fault to be reported in these examples 17 5 5 Varying cooling conditions 10714103 a3 38 8 C 30 5 C Figure 17 15 An infrared image of bundled cables When for example a number of cables are bundled together it can happen that the resulting poor cooling of the cables in the middle can lead to them reaching very high temperatures See the image above The cables to the right in the image do not show any overheating close to the bolts In the vertical part of the bundle however the cables are held together very tightly the cooling of the cables is poor the convection can not take the heat away and the cables are notably hotter actually about 5 C 9 F above the temperature of the better cooled part of the cables Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 107 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 17 5 6 Resistance variations Overheating can have many origins Some common reasons are described below Low contact pressure can occur when mounting a joint or through wear of the mate rial for example decreasing spring tension worn threads in nuts and bolts even too much force applied at mounting With increasing loads and temperatures the yield point of the material is exceeded and the tension weakens T
126. nt sse 88 16 4 8 6 Survey and analysis sese 89 16 4 8 7 RE POMING eR 90 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 92 17d Jdmportant hnote i Na oneal eins oec ees 92 17 2 General information ae 92 17 2 4 Introduction 92 17 2 2 General equipment data sssssssssssssssseeeeneeeneneeneenenrnnennennnnna 93 17 2 9 Inspection ee etie de p ce a DL D Re XE NOIL Rd 94 17 2 4 Classification amp reporting 0 ssa 94 14 2 5 POON zoe em tne e Dg e apre Yee aped ded 95 17 2 6 Repair 24795 172 7 Gonltol sce cep 96 17 3 Measurement technique for thermographic inspection of electrical installations e 97 17 9 4 How to correctly set the equipment ssssssseeen ens 97 17 3 2 Temperature measurement ssssssssssseeeenenen ee enema 97 17 8 8 Comparative measurement sssssssssseeeeneneeenntretnnnr trennen 99 17 3 4 Normal operating temperature ssssssseee enne 100 17 3 5 Classification of faults 101 17 4 Reporting redeem 103 17 5 Different types of hot spots in electrical installations 105 ANNE Cei C 105 17522 Solar heating n ep tim er e pet ue Sce e Rec d ad 105 17 53 Inductive heating mede ence eee ce eco eed 106 175 4 Load variations ji ct edt t ee Ee ec en
127. nts in terms of the skills and experience of those taking the measurements e g by means of authorization by a national or regional standardization body 16 4 2 The effects of testing and checking It can be difficult to anticipate how well the thermal insulation and airtightness of a completed building will work There are certain factors involved in assembling the various components and building elements that can have a considerable impact on the final result The effects of transport handling and storage at the site and the way the work is done cannot be calculated in advance To ensure that the intended function is actually achieved verification by testing and checking the completed building is required Modern insulation technology has reduced the theoretical heat requirement This does mean however that defects that are relatively minor but at important locations e g leaking joints or incorrectly installed insulation can have considerable conse quences in terms both of heat and comfort Verification tests e g by means of ther mography have proved their value from the point of view both of the designer and the contractor and of the developer the property manager and the user For the designer the important thing is to find out about the function of various types of structures so that they can be designed to take into account both working methods and functional requirements The designer must also know how different materials
128. o ensure that their intended insulation and airtightness functions are actually achieved In its structural engineering application thermography is used to study temperature variations over the surfaces of a structure Variations in the structure s thermal resis tance can under certain conditions produce temperature variations on its surfaces Leakage of cold or warm air through the structure also affects the variation in surface temperature This means that insulation defects thermal bridges and air leaks in a building s enclosing structural components can be located and surveyed Thermography itself does not directly show the structure s thermal resistance or air tightness Where quantification of thermal resistance or airtightness is required addi tional measurements have also to be taken Thermographic analysis of buildings relies on certain prerequisites in terms of temperature and pressure conditions across the structure Details shapes and contrasts in the thermal image can vary quite clearly with changes in any of these parameters The in depth analysis and interpretation of thermal images therefore requires thorough knowledge of such aspects as material and structural properties the effects of climate and the latest measuring techniques For assessing Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 71 16 Introduction to building thermography the results of measurements there are special requireme
129. o your eyes if you do not do this a Do not continue to charge the battery if it does not become charged in the specified charging time If you continue to charge the battery it can become hot and cause an explosion or ignition Only use the correct equipment to discharge the battery If you do not use the correct equipment you can decrease the performance or the life cycle of the battery If you do not use the correct equipment an incorrect flow of current to the battery can occur This can cause the battery to become hot or cause an explosion and injury to persons Make sure that you read all applicable MSDS Material Safety Data Sheets and warning labels on containers before you use a liquid the liquids can be dangerous Do not point the infrared camera with or without the lens cover at intensive energy Sources for example devices that emit laser radiation or the sun This can have an unwanted effect on the accuracy of the camera It can also cause damage to the detector in the camera Do not use the camera in a temperature higher than 50 C 122 F unless specified otherwise in the user documentation High temperatures can cause damage to the camera Applies only to cameras with laser pointer Protect the laser pointer with the protective cap when you do not operate the laser pointer Applies only to cameras with battery Do not attach the batteries directly to a car s cigarette lighter socket unless a specific ad
130. of fault observed during the repair as well as the action taken These observations make an important source of experi ence that can be used to reduce stock choose the best suppliers or to train new maintenance personnel 96 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 17 3 Measurement technique for thermographic inspection of electrical installations 17 3 1 How to correctly set the equipment A thermal image may show high temperature variations 10712803 a4 31 8 C 30 26 24 2 C Figure 17 2 Temperature variations in a fusebox In the images above the fuse to the right has a maximum temperature of 61 C 142 F whereas the one to the left is maximum 32 C 90 F and the one in the middle somewhere in between The three images are different inasmuch as the tem perature scale enhances only one fuse in each image However it is the same image and all the information about all three fuses is there It is only a matter of setting the temperature scale values 17 3 2 Temperature measurement Some cameras today can automatically find the highest temperature in the image The image below shows how it looks to the operator 10712903 a3 Figure 17 3 An infrared image of a fusebox where the maximum temperature is displayed The maximum temperature in the area is 62 2 C 144 0 F The spot meter shows the exact loca
131. ommercial roofs Infrared image Comment a Moisture detection on a roof recorded during the evening Since the building material affected by moisture has a higher thermal mass its temperature decreas es slower than surrounding areas 10554103 a1 Water damaged roofing components and insula tion identified from infrared scan from the under side of the built up roof on a structural concrete tee deck Affected areas are cooler than the surrounding sound areas due to conductive and or thermal capacitive effect 10554203 a1 Daytime survey of built up low slope commercial roof Affected areas are cooler than the surrounding dry areas due to conductive and or thermal capacitive effect Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 55 16 Introduction to building thermography 16 3 4 Moisture detection 2 Commercial amp residential facades 16 3 4 1 General information Thermography has proven to be invaluable in the assessment of moisture infiltration into commercial and residential fagades Being able to provide a physical illustration ofthe moisture migration paths is more conclusive than extrapolating moisture meter probe locations and more cost effective than large intrusive test cuts 16 3 4 2 Commented building structures This section includes a few typical examples of moisture problems on commercial and residential facades Structural drawing Comment Pel
132. one and the result may be a negative pressure throughout the building This situation most commonly occurs in small buildings In a larger building such as a tall industrial building with leaks at doors and any windows in the lower part of the building the neutral zone is about one third of the way up the building 80 Publ No 559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography 16 4 5 Measuring conditions amp measuring season The foregoing may be summarized as follows as to the requirements with regard to measuring conditions when carrying out thermographic imaging of buildings Thermographic imaging is done in such a way that the disruptive influence from ex ternal climatic factors is as slight as possible The imaging process is therefore carried out indoors i e where a building is heated the structure s warm surfaces are exam ined Outdoor thermography is only used to obtain reference measurements of larger facade surfaces In certain cases e g where the thermal insulation is very bad or where there is an internal positive pressure outdoor measurements may be useful Even when investigating the effects of installations located within the building s climatic envelope there may be justification for thermographic imaging from outside the building The following conditions are recommended The air temperature difference within the relevant part of the building must be at
133. ont of the camera The center value of the temperature scale usually expressed as a signal value manual adjust Away to adjust the image by manually changing certain param eters NETD Noise equivalent temperature difference A measure of the image noise level of an IR camera noise Undesired small disturbance in the infrared image object parameters object signal A set of values describing the circumstances under which the measurement of an object was made and the object itself such as emissivity reflected apparent temperature distance etc A non calibrated value related to the amount of radiation re ceived by the camera from the object Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 121 19 Glossary Term or expression Explanation palette The set of colors used to display an IR image pixel Stands for picture element One single spot in an image radiance Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time area and angle W m sr radiant power Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time W radiation The process by which electromagnetic energy is emitted by an object or a gas radiator A piece of IR radiating equipment range The current overall temperature measurement limitation of an IR camera Cameras can have several ranges Expressed as two blackbody temperatures that limit the current calibration reference temp
134. ont pages with facts about the inspection such as Who the client is for example customer s company name and contact person Location of the inspection site address city and so on Date of inspection Date of report Name of thermographer Signature of thermographer Summary or table of contents Inspection pages containing IR images to document and analyze thermal properties or anomalies Identification of the inspected object a What is the object designation name number and so on a Photo a IR image When collecting IR images there are some details to consider Optical focus Thermal adjustment of the scene or the problem level amp span Composition proper observation distance and viewing angle Comment a Is there an anomaly or not a Is there a reflection or not Use a measurement tool spot area or isotherm to quantify the problem Use the simplest tool possible a profile graph is almost never needed in electrical reports Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 103 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 10713603 a3 THERMOGRAPHY INSPECTION Date 2005 10 10 FLIR tor le SYSTEMS FLIR Systems AB Contract 1708 ated load Fault class 2 Disconnect cable clean contact surfaces Check for connectivity between cable shoe and lead Replace any defective component Assemble acc
135. ording to directions with correct torque Note that load is only 18 Calculated temperature rise at 50 load would be approximately 104 C TSO T 1 T2 125 45 1 6 T2 Measure taken Sign Side 1 Figure 17 10 A report example 104 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 17 5 Different types of hot spots in electrical installations 17 5 1 Reflections The thermographic camera sees any radiation that enters the lens not only originating from the object that you are looking at but also radiation that comes from other sources and has been reflected by the target Most of the time electrical components are like mirrors to the infrared radiation even if it is not obvious to the eye Bare metal parts are particularly shiny whereas painted plastic or rubber insulated parts are mostly not In the image below you can clearly see a reflection from the thermo grapher This is of course not a hot spot on the object A good way to find out if what you see is a reflection or not is for you to move Look at the target from a different angle and watch the hot spot If it moves when you do it is a reflection Measuring temperature of mirror like details is not possible The object in the images below has painted areas which are well suited for temperature measurement The material is copper which is a
136. ore the IR camera operator knows about the equipment that he or she is about to inspect the higher the quality of the inspection But it is virtually impossible for an IR thermographer to have detailed knowledge about all the different types of equipment that can be controlled It is therefore common practice that a person responsible for the equipment is present during the inspection 17 2 3 Inspection The preparation of the inspection should include the choice of the right type of report Itis often necessary to use complementary equipment such as ampere meters in order to measure the current in the circuits where defects were found An anemometer is necessary if you want to measure the wind speed at inspection of outdoor equipment Automatic functions help the IR operator to visualize an IR image of the components with the right contrast to allow easy identification of a fault or a hot spot It is almost impossible to miss a hot spot on a scanned component A measurement function will also automatically display the hottest spot within an area in the image or the difference between the maximum temperature in the chosen area and a reference which can be chosen by the operator for example the ambient temperature 10712703 a3 Figure 17 1 An infrared and a visual image of a power line isolator When the fault is clearly identified and the IR thermographer has made sure that it is not a reflection or a naturally occurring hot spot the collect
137. ory card Battery charging indicator a No light The power supply is not connected Orange light The battery is being charged a Green light The charging of the battery is completed Power supply cable USB cable with USB Mini B connector Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 15 11 Using the camera 11 1 Installing the battery Procedure Follow this procedure to install the battery Remove the battery compartment cover T630174 a1 Connect the cable that is attached to the battery to the connector inside the battery compartment Note Do not use conductive tools when doing this T630173 a2 Push the battery into place Replace the cover to close the battery compartment 16 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 11 Using the camera 11 2 NOTE About the battery charging indicator Procedure Charging the battery a You must charge the battery inside the camera for four full hours or until the battery indicator displays a green light before you use the camera for the first time The first time you charge a factory new battery you must turn on and then turn off the camera after you have connected the power supply to the power connector on the camera a Ifthe camera does not start after you have charged the battery push the reset button with a non conductive tool The reset button is located beside the
138. peration conditions has created a natural division between these groups The power generation companies measure during the periods of high load These periods vary from country to country 92 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations and for the climatic zones The measurement periods may also differ depending on the type of plant to be inspected whether they are hydroelectric nuclear coal based or oil based plants In the industry the inspections are at least in Nordic countries with clear seasonal differences carried out during spring or autumn or before longer stops in the oper ation Thus repairs are made when the operation is stopped anyway However this seems to be the rule less and less which has led to inspections of the plants under varying load and operating conditions 17 2 2 General equipment data The equipment to be inspected has a certain temperature behavior that should be known to the thermographer before the inspection takes place In the case of electrical equipment the physical principle of why faults show a different temperature pattern because of increased resistance or increased electrical current is well known However it is useful to remember that in some cases for example solenoids over heating is natural and does not correspond to a developing defect In other cases like the connections in elect
139. phy was carried out should be recorded in detail when each measurement is taken 16 4 4 Surface temperature and air leaks Defects in building airtightness due to small gaps in the structure can be detected by measuring the surface temperature If there is a negative pressure in the building under investigation air flows into the space through leaks in the building Cold air flowing in through small gaps in a wall usually lowers the temperature in adjacent areas of the wall The result is that a cooled surface area with a characteristic shape develops on the inside surface of the wall Thermography can be used to detect cooled surface areas Air movements at the wall surface can be measured using an air velocity indicator If there is a positive pressure inside the building being investi gated warm room air will leak out through gaps in the wall resulting in locally warm surface areas around the locations of the leaks The amount of leakage depends partly on gaps and partly on the differential pressure across the structure 16 4 4 1 Pressure conditions in a building The most important causes of differential pressure across a structural element in a building are wind conditions around the building the effects of the ventilation system temperature differences between air inside and outside thermal differential pres sure The actual pressure conditions inside a building are usually caused by a combination of these factors
140. ple The radiation characteristics of an aperture in an isotherm cavity made of an opaque absorbing material represents almost exactly the properties of a blackbody A practical application ofthe principle to the construction of a perfect absorber of radiation consists of a box that is light tight except for an aperture in one of the sides Any radiation which then enters the hole is scattered and absorbed by repeated reflections so only an infinites imal fraction can possibly escape The blackness which is obtained at the aperture is nearly equal to a blackbody and almost perfect for all wavelengths By providing such an isothermal cavity with a suitable heater it becomes what is termed a cavity radiator An isothermal cavity heated to a uniform temperature gener ates blackbody radiation the characteristics of which are determined solely by the temperature of the cavity Such cavity radiators are commonly used as sources of radiation in temperature reference standards in the laboratory for calibrating thermo graphic instruments such as a FLIR Systems camera for example 134 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 22 Theory of thermography If the temperature of blackbody radiation increases to more than 525 C 977 F the source begins to be visible so that it appears to the eye no longer black This is the incipient red heat temperature of the radiator which then becomes orange or yellow as the temperature in
141. ply selecting a surface property Emissivity is a property that indicates how much radiation originates from an object as opposed to being reflected by it A lower value indicates that a larger proportion is being reflected while a high value indicates that a lower proportion is being reflect ed Polished stainless steel for example has an emissivity of 0 14 while a structured PVC floor typically has an emissivity of 0 93 Follow this procedure to set the emissivity Push the left selection button Menu Use the navigation pad to go to Measure Push the left selection button Select This will display the Measure sub menu Use the navigation pad to select Advanced Push the left selection button Select This will display the Advanced sub menu Use the navigation pad to do either of the following Seta value for emissivity Select a material in the list of materials Push the left selection button Select to confirm the choice and leave the menu To read more about emissivity see section 20 Thermographic measurement tech niques on page 124 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 31 11 Using the camera 11 16 Changing the reflected apparent temperature General This parameter is used to compensate for the radiation reflected by the object If the emissivity is low and the object temperature relatively far from that of the reflected temper
142. ponent should be controlled as soon as possible after the repair It is not efficientto wait for the next scheduled IR survey in order to combine a new inspec tion with the control of the repaired defects The statistics on the effect of the repair show that up to a third of the repaired defects still show overheating That is the same as saying that those defects present a potential risk of failure To wait until the next scheduled IR survey represents an unnecessary risk for the plant Besides increasing the efficiency of the maintenance cycle measured in terms of lower risk for the plant the immediate control of the repair work brings other advan tages to the performance of the repair crew itself When a defect still shows overheating after the repair the determination of the cause of overheating improves the repair procedure helps choose the best component suppliers and detect design shortcomings on the electrical installation The crew rapidly sees the effect of the work and can learn quickly both from successful repairs and from mistakes Another reason to provide the repair crew with an IR instrument is that many of the defects detected during the IR survey are of low gravity Instead of repairing them which consumes maintenance and production time it can be decided to keep these defects under control Therefore the maintenance personnel should have access to their own IR equipment It is common to note on the report form the type
143. r the individual buying a house involves a considerable financial commitment and the purchaser therefore wants to know that any defects in the construction will not in volve serious financial consequences or hygiene problems The effects of testing and checking a building s insulation and airtightness are partly physiological and partly financial The physiological experience of an indoor climatic environment is very subjective varying according to the particular human body s heat balance and the way the indi vidual experiences temperature The experience of climate depends on both the indoor air temperature and that of the surrounding surfaces The speed of movement and moisture content of indoor air are also of some significance Physiologically a draft produces the sensation of local cooling of the body s surface caused by a excessive air movements in the occupied zone with normal air temperature normal air movements in the occupied zone but a room temperature that is too low substantial radiated heat exchange with a cold surface It is difficult to assess the quantitative effects of testing and checking a building s thermal insulation Investigations have shown that defects found in the thermal insulation and airtightness of buildings cause heat losses that are about 20 30 more than was expected Monitoring energy consumption before and after remedial measures in relatively large complexes of small houses and in multi dwelling
144. rchitect or contractor of the building can usually supply the relevant information Common causes of roof failure are outlined in the table below from SPIE Thermosense Proceedings Vol 371 1982 p 177 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 51 16 Introduction to building thermography Poor workmanship Roof traffic Poor design Trapped moisture Materials Age amp weathering Potential leak locations include the following Flashing Drains Penetrations Seams Blisters 16 3 3 2 Safety precautions Recommend a minimum of two people on a roof preferably three or more Inspect the underside of the roof for structural integrity prior to walking on it Avoid stepping on blisters that are common on built up bitumen and gravel roofs Have a cell phone or radio available in case of emergency Inform local police and plant security prior to doing nighttime roof survey 52 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography 16 3 3 3 Commented building structures This section includes a few typical examples of moisture problems on low slope commercial roofs Comment Structural drawing Inadequate sealing of roof membrane around conduit and ventilation ducts leading to local leakage around the conduit or duct mE Roof membrane inadequately sealed around roof access hatch
145. rical motors the overheating might depend on the fact that the healthy part is taking the entire load and therefore becomes overheated A similar example is shown in section 17 5 7 Overheating in one part as a result of a fault in another on page 108 Defective parts of electrical equipment can therefore both indicate overheating and be cooler than the normal healthy components It is necessary to be aware of what to expect by getting as much information as possible about the equipment before it is inspected The general rule is however that a hot spot is caused by a probable defect The temperature and the load of that specific component at the moment of inspection will give an indication of how serious the fault is and can become in other conditions Correct assessment in each specific case demands detailed information about the thermal behavior of the components that is we need to know the maximum allowed temperature of the materials involved and the role the component plays in the system Cable insulations for example lose their insulation properties above a certain tem perature which increases the risk of fire In the case of breakers where the temperature is too high parts can melt and make it impossible to open the breaker thereby destroying its functionality Publ No 559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 93 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations The m
146. rmation provided by the infrared survey can be used to improve the repair efficiency as well as to reach the other goals with a calculated risk To monitor the temperature of a known defect that can not be repaired immediately for instance because spare parts are not available can often pay for the cost of in spection a thousandfold and sometimes even for the IR camera To decide not to repair known defects to save on maintenance costs and avoid unnecessary downtime is also another way of using the information from the IR survey in a productive way Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 95 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations However the most common result of the identification and classification of the detected faults is a recommendation to repair immediately or as soon as itis practically possible It is important that the repair crew is aware of the physical principles for the identifica tion of defects If a defect shows a high temperature and is in a critical situation it is very common that the repair personnel expect to find a highly corroded component It should also come as no surprise to the repair crew that a connection which is usually healthy can give the same high temperatures as a corroded one if it has come loose These misinterpretations are quite common and risk putting in doubt the relia bility of the infrared survey 17 2 7 Control A repaired com
147. rom the building a negative pressure of 2 5 Pa can be expected When this negative pressure leads to cold air entering the building structure due to deficiencies in building insulation and or building sealing we have what is called air infiltration Air infiltration can be expected at joints and seams in the building structure Due to the fact that air infiltration creates an air flow of cool air into e g a room it can lead to substantial deterioration of the indoor climate Air flows as small as 0 15 m s 0 49 ft s are usually noticed by inhabitants although these air flows may be difficult to detect using ordinary measurement devices On an infrared image air infiltration can be identified by its typical ray pattern which emanates from the point of exit in the building structure e g from behind a skirting strip Furthermore areas of air infiltration typically have a lower detected temperature than areas where there is only an insulation deficiency This is due to the chill factor of the air flow 16 3 7 2 Commented building structures This section includes a few typical examples of details of building structures where air infiltration may occur Structural drawing Comment Insulation deficiencies at the eaves of a brickwall A house due to improperly installed fiberglass insu P lation batts y The air infiltration enters the room from behind the cornice 64 Publ No T559580 Rev
148. se infrared specialists ensures the accuracy and reliability of all vital components that are assembled into your infrared camera 18 1 More than just an infrared camera At FLIR Systems we recognize that our job is to go beyond just producing the best infrared camera systems We are committed to enabling all users of our infrared camera systems to work more productively by providing them with the most powerful Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 117 18 About FLIR Systems camera software combination Especially tailored software for predictive maintenance R amp D and process monitoring is developed in house Most software is available in a wide variety of languages We support all our infrared cameras with a wide variety of accessories to adapt your equipment to the most demanding infrared applications 18 2 Sharing our knowledge Although our cameras are designed to be very user friendly there is a lot more to thermography than just knowing how to handle a camera Therefore FLIR Systems has founded the Infrared Training Center ITC a separate business unit that provides certified training courses Attending one of the ITC courses will give you a truly hands on learning experience The staff of the ITC are also there to provide you with any application support you may need in putting infrared theory into practice 18 3 Supporting our customers FLIR Systems operates a worldwide service
149. sh the right selection button Close Alternative 2 Follow this procedure to delete an image Push the Archive button Select the image you want to delete by using the navigation pad Push the left selection button Delete Push the right selection button to confirm Delete To return to live mode do one of the following a Push the Archive button Push the right selection button Close 22 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 11 Using the camera 11 7 Deleting all images General You can delete all images from the miniSD memory card Procedure Follow this procedure to delete all images Push the Archive button Push the button This will display the image archive Push the left selection button Options Use the navigation pad to select Delete all images Push the left selection button Select Push the right selection button to confirm Delete Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 23 11 Using the camera 11 8 General Procedure Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter You can measure a temperature using a spotmeter This will display the temperature at the position of the spotmeter on the screen Follow this procedure Push the left selection button Menu Use the navigation pad to select Measurement Push the left selection button Select Use the navigation p
150. sionally this is set at one thousandth or 0 1 of the total surface area Ac A 1000 If A lt A the building as a whole can be considered to have reasonably contin uous insulation 16 4 8 7 Reporting Reports should certificate a pass fail result comply with customers requirements and as a minimum include the information required by BSEN 13187 The following data is normally required so that survey can be repeated following remedial action Background to the objective and principles of the test Location orientation date and time of survey A unique identifying reference Thermographer s name and qualifications Type of construction Weather conditions wind speed and direction last precipitation sunshine degree of cloud cover Ambient temperatures inside and outside before at the beginning of survey and the time of each image Air temperature and radiant temperature should be recorded Statement of any deviation from relevant test requirements Equipment used last calibration date any knows defects Name affiliation and qualifications of tester Type extent and position of each observed defect Results of any supplementary measurements and investigations Reports should be indexed and archived by thermographers 16 4 8 7 1 Considerations and limitations The choice between internal and external surveys will depend on 90 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 In
151. stems provided impetus following the 1939 45 war for extensive secret military infrared research programs into the possibilities of developing passive no search beam systems around the extremely sensitive photon detector During this period military secrecy regulations completely prevented disclosure of the status of infrared imaging technology This secrecy only began to be lifted in the middle of the 1950 s and from that time adequate thermal imaging devices finally began to be available to civilian science and industry 132 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 22 Theory of thermography 22 1 Introduction The subjects of infrared radiation and the related technique of thermography are still new to many who will use an infrared camera In this section the theory behind ther mography will be given 22 2 The electromagnetic spectrum The electromagnetic spectrum is divided arbitrarily into a number of wavelength re gions called bands distinguished by the methods used to produce and detect the radiation There is no fundamental difference between radiation in the different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum They are all governed by the same laws and the only differences are those due to differences in wavelength 10067803 a1 4 100m 1km 10 nm Wem dm Uum Toon mm 10mm 100mm 1m 10m 2um 13 um Figure 22 1 The electromagnetic spectrum 1 X ray 2 UV 3 Visible 4 IR 5
152. t always add up to the whole at any wavelength so we have the relation Oy py T 1 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 139 22 Theory of thermography For opaque materials T 0 and the relation simplifies to o py 1 Another factor called the emissivity is required to describe the fraction e of the radiant emittance of a blackbody produced by an object at a specific temperature Thus we have the definition The spectral emissivity the ratio of the spectral radiant power from an object to that from a blackbody at the same temperature and wavelength Expressed mathematically this can be written as the ratio of the spectral emittance of the object to that of a blackbody as follows Was Ey Wy Generally speaking there are three types of radiation source distinguished by the ways in which the spectral emittance of each varies with wavelength A blackbody for which 1 A graybody for which constant less than 1 A selective radiator for which varies with wavelength According to Kirchhoff s law for any material the spectral emissivity and spectral ab sorptance of a body are equal at any specified temperature and wavelength That is Ey Ay From this we obtain for an opaque material since a p 1 p 1 For highly polished materials approaches zero so that for a perfectly reflecting material i e a perfect mirror w
153. t is important to consider the environmental conditions and to use the most appropriate thermographic technique for the task Thermal anomalies will only present themselves to the thermographer where temper ature differences exist and environmental phenomena are accounted for As a mini mum the following conditions should be complied with Temperature differences across the building fabric to be greater than 10 C 18 F Internal air to ambient air temperature difference to be greater than 5 C 9 F for the last twentyfour hours before survey External air temperature to be within 3 C 5 4 F for duration of survey and for the previous hour External air temperature to be within 10 C 18 F for the preceding twentyfour hours In addition external surveys should also comply with the following Necessary surfaces free from direct solar radiation and the residual effects of past solar radiation This can be checked by comparing the surface temperatures of opposite sides of the building No precipitation either just prior to or during the survey Ensure all building surfaces to be inspected are dry 88 Publ No 559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography Wind speed to be less than 10 metres second 19 5 kn As well as temperature there are other environmental conditions that should also be taken into account when planning a thermographic buil
154. t temperature You are in a measurement situation where there are several hot sources that influence your measurement You need to have the right value for the reflected apparent tem perature to input into the camera and thus get the best possible correction Do it in this way set the emissivity to 1 0 Adjust the camera lens to near focus and looking in the opposite direction away from the object save one image With the area or the isotherm determine the most probable value of the average of the image and use that value for your input of reflected apparent temperature 17 7 5 Object too far away Are you in doubt that the camera you have is measuring correctly at the actual dis tance A rule of thumb for your lens is to multiply the IFOV by 3 IFOV is the detail of the object seen by one single element of the detector Example 25 degrees cor respond to about 437 mrad If your camera has a 120 x 120 pixel image IFOV be comes 437 120 3 6 mrad 3 6 mm m and your spot size ratio is about 1000 3 x 3 6 292 1 This means that at a distance of 9 2 meters 30 2 ft your target has to be at least about 0 1 meter or 100 mm wide 3 9 Try to work on the safe side by coming closer than 9 meters 30 ft At 7 8 meters 23 26 ft your measurement should be correct Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 115 18 About FLIR Systems FLIR Systems was established in 1978 to pioneer the development of high per
155. t the hot spot found is in focus See the example below 10717403 a2 61 4 C 61 4 C 60 60 40 40 20 20 18 1 C 18 1 C Figure 17 5 LEFT A hot spot in focus RIGHT A hot spot out of focus In the left image the lamp is in focus Its average temperature is 64 C 147 F In the right image the lamp is out of focus which will result in only 51 C 124 F as the average temperature 98 Publ No 559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 17 3 3 Comparative measurement For thermographic inspections of electrical installations a special method is used which is based on comparison of different objects so called measurement with a reference This simply means that you compare the three phases with each other This method needs systematic scanning of the three phases in parallel in order to assess whether a point differs from the normal temperature pattern A normal temperature pattern means that current carrying components have a given operation temperature shown in a certain color or gray tone on the display which is usually identical for all three phases under symmetrical load Minor differences in the color might occur in the current path for example at the junction of two different materials at increasing or decreasing conductor areas or on circuit breakers where the current path is encapsulated The image below shows three
156. te due to inade quately sized drop apron and has led to concrete disintegration and corrosion of reinforcement SECURITY RISK Water has penetrated the plaster and underlying masonry at the point where the handrail is fastened to the wall SECURITY RISK 60 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography 16 3 5 3 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of moisture problems on decks and balconies Infrared image Comment ME Improper flashing at balcony to wall connections and missing perimeter drainage system resulted in moisture intrusion into the wood framing support structure of the exterior walkway balcony of a loft complex 10555403 a1 A missing composite drainage plane or medium on a below grade parking garage plaza deck structure resulted in standing water between the structural concrete deck and the plaza wearing surface 16 3 6 Moisture detection 4 Plumbing breaks amp leaks 16 3 6 1 General information Water from plumbing leaks can often lead to severe damage on a building structure Small leaks may be difficult to detect but can over the years penetrate structural walls and foundations to a degree where the building structure is beyond repair Using building thermography at an early stage when plumbing breaks and leaks are suspected can lead to substantial savings on material a
157. the plastic cover Some camera models have a separate External optics transmission entry 17 7 3 Emissivity You have to determine the emissivity for the material which you are measuring Mostly you will not find the value in tables Use optical black paint that is Nextel Black Velvet Paint a small piece of the material you are working with The emissivity of the optical paint is normally 0 94 Remember that the object has to have a temper ature which is different usually higher than the ambient temperature The larger the difference the better the accuracy in the emissivity calculation The difference should be at least 20 C 36 F Remember that there are other paints that support very high temperatures up to 800 C 1472 F The emissivity may however be lower than that of optical black Sometimes you can not paint the object that you are measuring In this case you can use a tape A thin tape for which you have previously determined the emissivity will work in most cases and you can remove it afterwards without damaging the object of your study Pay attention to the fact that some tapes are semi transparent and thus are not very good for this purpose One of the best tapes for this purpose is Scotch electrical tape for outdoor and sub zero conditions 114 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 17 7 4 Reflected apparen
158. ting rain penetrates the facade due to badly executed bed joints Moisture builds up in the masonry above the window Pelting rain hits the window at an angle Most of the rain runs off the window edge flashing but some finds its way into the masonry where the plaster meets the underside of the flashing 56 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 16 Introduction to building thermography Structural drawing Comment Rain hits the facade at an angle and penetrates the plaster through cracks The water then follows the inside of the plaster and leads to frost erosion Rain splashes on the facade and penetrates the plaster and masonry by absorption which eventu ally leads to frost erosion Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 57 16 Introduction to building thermography 16 3 4 3 Commented infrared images This section includes a few typical infrared images of moisture problems on commercial amp residential facades Infrared image Comment ME Improperly terminated and sealed stone veneer to window frame and missing flashings has resulted in moisture infiltration into the wall cavity and inte rior living space 10554803 a1 Moisture migration into drywall from capillary drive and interior finish components from inadequate clearance and slope of grade from vinyl siding facade on an apartment complex urtesy Professiona
159. tion of the hot spot The image can easily be stored in the camera memory The correct temperature measurement depends however not only on the function of the evaluation software or the camera It may happen that the actual fault is for example a connection which is hidden from the camera in the position it happens Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 97 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations to be in for the moment It might be so that you measure heat which has been con ducted over some distance whereas the real hot spot is hidden from you An example is shown in the image below 10717603 a3 TLAC L 40 33 6 C a 8 a E e Figure 17 4 A hidden hot spot inside a box Try to choose different angles and make sure that the hot area is seen in its full size that is that it is not disappearing behind something that might hide the hottest spot In this image the hottest spot of what the camera can see is 83 C 181 F where the operating temperature on the cables below the box is 60 C 140 F However the real hot spot is most probably hidden inside the box see the in yellow encircled area This fault is reported as a 23 0 C 41 4 F excess temperature but the real problem is probably essentially hotter Another reason for underestimating the temperature of an object is bad focusing It is very important tha
160. troduction to building thermography Access to the surface Buildings where both the internal and the external surfaces are obscured e g by false ceilings racking or materials stacked against walls may not be amenable to this type of survey Location of the thermal insulation Surveys are usually more effective from the side nearest to the thermal insulation Location of heavyweight materials Surveys are usually less effective from the side nearest to the heavyweight material The purpose of the survey If the survey aims to show risk of condensation and mould growth it should be internal Location of glass bare metal or other materials that may be highly reflective Surveys are usually less effective on highly reflective surfaces A defect will usually produce a smaller temperature difference on the outside of a wall exposed to external air movement However missing or defective insulation near the external surface can often be more readily indentified externally Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 91 17 Introduction to thermographic inspections of electrical installations 17 1 Important note All camera functions and features that are described in this section may not be sup ported by your particular camera configuration Electrical regulations differ from country to country For that reason the electrical procedures described in this section may not be the standard of procedure
161. typically max 30 minutes Disabling the shutter for a longer time period may harm or ir reparably damage the detector The encapsulation rating is valid only when all openings on the camera are sealed with their designated covers hatches or caps This includes but is not limited to compartments for data storage batteries and connectors Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 2 Typographical conventions User to user forums Calibration Accuracy Disposal of electronic waste Training Notice to user This manual uses the following typographical conventions Semibold is used for menu names menu commands and labels and buttons in dialog boxes Italic is used for important information Monospace is used for code samples UPPER CASE is used for names on keys and buttons Exchange ideas problems and infrared solutions with fellow thermographers around the world in our user to user forums To go to the forums visit http www infraredtraining com community boards This notice only applies to cameras with measurement capabilities We recommend that you send in the camera for calibration once a year Contact your local sales office for instructions on where to send the camera This notice only applies to cameras with measurement capabilities For very accurate results we recommend that you wait 5 minutes after you have started the camera before measuring a
162. u want to measure Make sure that the side with aluminum foil points to the camera 4 Set the emissivity to 1 0 126 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 20 Thermographic measurement techniques 5 Measure the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil and write it down 10727003 a2 Figure 20 4 Measuring the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil 20 2 1 2 Step 2 Determining the emissivity Select a place to put the sample Determine and set reflected apparent temperature according to the previous procedure Put a piece of electrical tape with known high emissivity on the sample Heat the sample at least 20 K above room temperature Heating must be reasonably even Focus and auto adjust the camera and freeze the image Adjust Level and Span for best image brightness and contrast Set emissivity to that of the tape usually 0 97 Measure the temperature of the tape using one of the following measurement functions Isotherm helps you to determine both the temperature and how evenly you have heated the sample Spot simpler Box Avg good for surfaces with varying emissivity Write down the temperature Move your measurement function to the sample surface Change the emissivity setting until you read the same temperature as your previous measure ment Write down the emissivity Note Publ No T559580 Rev a50
163. ve water damage on an external wall where the water has penetrated the outer facing because of an incorrectly installed window ledge 10739503 a1 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 438 15 Application examples 15 2 General NOTE Figure Faulty contact in socket Depending on the type of connection a socket has an improperly connected wire can result in local temperature increase This temperature increase is caused by the reduced contact area between the connection point of the incoming wire and the socket and can result in an electrical fire A socket s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another For this reason different faults in a socket can lead to the same typical appearance in an infrared image Local temperature increase can also result from improper contact between wire and socket or from difference in load The image below shows a connection of a cable to a socket where improper contact in the connection has resulted in local temperature increase 10739603 a1 44 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 15 Application examples 15 3 Oxidized socket General Depending on the type of socket and the environment in which the socket is installed oxides may occur on the socket s contact surfaces These oxides can lead to locally increased resistance when the socket is loaded which can be seen in an
164. vident with characteristically shaped sharp contours The temperature pattern is usually asymmetrical During thermography and when interpreting an infrared image comparison infrared images can provide valuable information for assessment The sources of disruption in thermography that occur most commonly in practice are the effect of the sun on the surface being thermographed sunlight shining in through a window hot radiators with pipes lights directed at or placed near the surface being measured air flows e g from air intakes directed at the surface the effect of moisture deposits on the surface Surfaces on which the sun is shining should not be subjected to thermography If there is a risk of an effect by sunlight windows should be covered up closing Venetian blinds However be aware that there are building defects or problems typically moisture problems that only show up when heat has been applied to the surface e g from the sun For more information about moisture detection see section 16 3 2 About moisture detection on page 51 A hot radiator appears as a bright light surface in an infrared image The surface temperature of a wall next to a radiator is raised which may conceal any defects present For maximum prevention of disruptive effects from hot radiators these may be shut off a short while before the measurement is taken However depending on the con struction of the building low or high mass
165. y in an infrared image Minor differences may also occur naturally In the image below insulation in the roof framing is lacking Due to the absence of insulation air has forced its way into the roof structure which thus takes on a different characteristic appearance in the infrared image 10739803 a1 46 Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 15 Application examples 15 5 Draft General Draft can be found under baseboards around door and window casings and above ceiling trim This type of draft is often possible to see with an infrared camera as a cooler airstream cools down the surrounding surface NOTE When you are investigating draft in a house there should be sub atmospheric pressure in the house Close all doors windows and ventilation ducts and allow the kitchen fan to run for a while before you take the infrared images An infrared image of draft often shows a typical stream pattern You can see this stream pattern clearly in the picture below Also keep in mind that drafts can be concealed by heat from floor heating circuits Figure The image below shows a ceiling hatch where faulty installation has resulted in a strong draft 10739903 a1 N Publ No T559580 Rev a506 ENGLISH EN February 4 2011 4 16 Introduction to building thermography 16 1 Disclaimer 16 1 1 Copyright notice Some sections and or images appearing in this chapter ar

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