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1. 2 Methods 2 1 The study area This research was performed in Trifinio 15 1 N 89 8 W a boundary zone between Honduras Guatemala and El Salvador and in Nicacentro 13 17 N 85 42 W a strategic region in Nicaragua proposed by CATIE in 2008 under the Mesoamerican Agro Environmental Program MAP Both regions are included in the conceptual mark of the climate smart territories where an effort exists to develop integrated strategies for rural territorial development In both territories agriculture is the livelihood of the majority of the population The Trifinio region has an area of 7 541 km2 including 45 towns with a total of 670 000 inhabitants The average annual precipitation is 1 600 mm with an average annual temperature of 20 C The altitudinal range is between 600 and 1 600 m above sea level 18 CTPT 2014 This research was conducted in three Honduran towns that form part of Trifinio Cop n Ruinas Nueva Arcadia and Santa Rita Nicacentro has an area of 6 500 km including eight towns with a total of 360 000 inhabitants The altitudinal range is between 350 and 1 750 m above sea level The climate is classified as tropical wet with an average annual temperature of 26 C and an annual precipitation between 1 600 and 2 400 mm INEC 2006 The research for this study was conducted in El Cu a buffer area of the Bosawas Biosphere Reserve 2 2 Data collection and analysis The permanent sample plots2. J S nchez D Medina A Vilchez S Hern ndez B Perez A Ruiz F L pez F Lang I Sinclair F L 2005 Contribution of live fences to the ecological integrity of agricultural landscapes Agriculture Ecosystems 8 Environment 111 1 4 200 230 doi 10 1016 j agee 2005 06 011 Harvey C A Villanueva C Esquivel H G mez R Ibrahim M Lopez M Martinez J Mu oz D Restrepo C Sa nz J C Villacis J Sinclair F L 2011 Conservation value of dispersed tree cover threatened by pasture management Forest Ecology and Management 261 10 1664 1674 doi 10 1016 j foreco 2010 11 004 Harvey C A T N I J Estrada A 2013 Live fences isolated trees and windbreaks tools for conserving biodiversity in fragmented tropical landscapes Jn G tz Schroth G A B d F Celia A Harvey Claude Gascon Heraldo L Vasconcelos Anne Marie N Izac 31 ed 2013 Agroforestry and biodiversity conservation in tropical landscapes Washington D C USA Island Press p 261 289 Hoch L Pokorny B de Jong W 2012 Financial attractiveness of smallholder tree plantations in the Amazon bridging external expectations and local realities Agroforestry Systems 84 3 361 375 doi 10 1007 s10457 012 9480 1 Ibrahim M Camargo J C 2001 C mo aumentar la regeneraci n de rboles maderables en potreros Agroforester a en las Am ricas 8 32 35 45 Available in ftp ftp fao org docrep nonfao lead x6354s x6354s00 pdf
3. Springer Netherlands p 3 33 Advances in Agroforestry doi 10 1007 978 1 4020 8261 0_1 Somarriba E Beer J Muschler R G 2001a Research methods for multistrata agroforestry systems with coffee and cacao recommendations from two decades of research at CATIE Agroforestry Systems 53 195 203 doi 10 1023 A 1013380605176 Somarriba E Valdivieso R V squez W Galloway G 2001b Survival growth timber productivity and site index of Cordia alliodora in forestry and agroforestry systems Agroforestry Systems 51 111 118 doi 10 1023 A 1010699019745 Somarriba E Beer J 2011 Productivity of Theobroma cacao agroforestry systems with timber or legume service shade trees Agroforestry Systems 81 2 109 121 doi 10 1007 s10457 010 9364 1 Somarriba E Orozco L L pez A 2012 Producci n de madera en sistemas agroforestales con cacao Jn Detlefsen G Somarriba E eds 2012 Producci n de madera en sistemas agroforestales de Centroam rica Turrialba Costa Rica CATIE p 133 144 Technical Series Available in http finnfor catie ac cr admin documents 208 Somarriba E Su rez Islas A Calero Borge W Villota A Castillo C V lchez S Deheuvels O Cerda R 2014 Cocoa timber agroforestry systems Theobroma cacao Cordia alliodora in Central America Agroforest Systems 88 1 doi 10 1007 s10457 014 9692 7 S arez A Somarriba E 2002 Aprovechamiento sostenible de madera de Cordia alliodora de rege
4. the basal area increment m2 ha year was classified into groups low 0 1 to 1 0 moderate 1 1 to 2 0 and high gt 2 1 and the timber volume yield m3 ha year was classified into groups low 0 1 to 3 0 moderate 3 1 to 6 0 and high gt 6 1 2 3 Financial analysis A financial analysis was carried out to determine the cash flow in the farms Crop yields coffee cocoa milk labor costs total revenues per ha net returns to labor market timber prices and cost of tree management were derived from interviewing farmers as well as complementary information from Apaza 2011 Leiva 2011 and Toru o 2012 Using the average commercial volume of a harvesting tree DBH gt 45 cm and the local timber price of a board foot 0 002360 m3 per species the price of one tree per species was estimated This methodology was used to get closer to the local reality considering that trees are sold individually by their diameter class The Net Present Value NPV using discount rates of 6 and 12 and the Internal Rate of Return IRR were calculated and the potential revenues of timber harvest in the 19 agroforestry systems were determined Timber harvesting and transportation costs were not included in the financial calculations because farmers in Nicaragua and Trifinio commonly sell timber as stump in the farms Costs of land use were also not included 2 4 Population dynamics model Usher model transition matrices were used
5. Ibrahim M Pezo D 2012 Interacciones en sistemas silvopastoriles Jn Detlefsen G Somarriba E eds 2012 Producci n de madera en sistemas agroforestales de Centroam rica Turrialba Costa Rica CATIE p 69 90 Technical Series Available in http finnfor catie ac cr admin documents 208 Ibrahim M Zapata P 2012 Producci n de madera en sistemas silvopastoriles Jn Detlefsen G Somarriba E eds 2012 Producci n de madera en sistemas agroforestales de Centroam rica Turrialba Costa Rica CATIE p 112 132 Technical Series Available in http finnfor catie ac cr admin documents 208 INEC Instituto Nacional de Estad sticas y Censos Nicaragua 2006 Censo de poblaci n y de vivienda 2005 Man gua Nicaragua INEC 40 p Censos Nacionales 7 ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization Japan 2013 Annual review and assessment of the world timber situation 2012 Yokohama Japan International Tropical Timber Organization ITTO 182 p Annual report Available in http www itto int annual review Jim nez N G 2012 Producci n de madera y almacenamiento de carbono en cafetales con cedro Cedrela odorata y caoba Swietenia macrophylla en Honduras M Sc Thesis Turrialba Costa Rica CATIE 121 p Kent J Ammour T 2012 An lisis financiero y econ mico de la producci n de madera en sistemas agroforestales Jn Detlefsen G Somarriba E eds 2012 Producci n de madera en sistemas agroforestales
6. conditions needed to guarantee the success of the harvest plan are the maintenance of 30 trees ha year currently farmers manage that quantity of seedlings the minimum annual survival rate for each diameter class Table 4 and seed production trees It is important to highlight that silvopastoral systems of P oocarpa are changing the population dynamics by the dominance of seedlings of Quercus elliptica which have a biological interaction with squirrels Sciuridae that eat the seeds of P oocarpa and disperse the seeds of Q elliptica the frequency of Q elliptica seedlings was twice than seedlings of P oocarpa Studying this interaction is key to ensure the sustainability of timber harvest of P oocarpa nt 1 reo Nt 6 nt 7 R S 10 15 20 25 H Diameter upper class limit cm Fig 8 Simulation of population dynamics and timber harvesting cycle of Tabebuia rosea with natural regeneration in pasturelands of Nicaragua with an average tree population of 40 trees ha and 40 seedlings ha l and a timber harvesting cycle of 5 trees ha each 6 years R recruits S sapling H harvest The population dynamics model for 7 rosea indicates that to maintain the sustainability of the system farmers can only harvest 5 trees ha every 6 years Fig 8 According to our model the sale of 7 rosea trees for firewood is an unfeasible activity increasing only 1 on the NPV of the system s revenues The main reason is the low growth
7. de la productividad y la contribuci n financiera del componente arb reo en peque as y medianas fincas ganaderas de la subcuenca del r o Cop n Honduras Agroforester a en las Am ricas 48 1 146 156 Cleugh H A 1998 Effects of windbreaks on airflow microclimates and crop yields Agroforestry Systems 41 1 55 84 doi 10 1023 A 1006019805109 Cruz A R Detlefsen G Ibrahim M Camino R d Galloway G 2010 Aprovechamiento del recurso maderable en sistemas silvopastoriles de Belice Recursos Naturales y Ambiente 59 60 91 98 Available in http finnfor catie ac cr admin documents 27 CTPT Comisi n Trinacional del Plan Trifinio El Salvador 2014 Regi n del Trifinio en breve Comisi n Trinacional del Plan Trifinio San Salvador El Salvador Available in http www sica int trifinio trifinio breve trifinio aspx IdEnt 140 Cubbage F Glenn V Paul Mueller J Robison D Myers R Luginbuhl J M Myers R 2012 Early tree growth crop yields and estimated returns for an agroforestry trial in Goldsboro North Carolina Agroforestry Systems 86 3 323 334 doi 10 1007 s10457 012 9481 0 Detlefsen G Pomareda C Ibrahim M Pezo D 2008 La legislaci n forestal debe ser revisada para fomentar y aprovechar el recurso maderable en fincas ganaderas de 30 Centroam rica Turrialba Costa Rica CATIE 34 p S ntesis para Decisores Available in http orton catie ac cr repdoc A2445E A2445E PDF Detlefsen G
8. for modeling the population dynamics where natural regeneration was observed This model was widely used by Somarriba et al 2001b S arez and Somarriba 2002 Borge 2009 and Somarriba et al 2014 to calculate tree survival growth and timber production for Cordia alliodora in cocoa based agroforestry systems Rates of recruitment growth harvest and mortality from the tree inventory in the PSPs were applied to this model In this study trees were sorted into 5 cm intervals of diameter class according to initial diameter and average intervals by diameter class calculated The minimum harvest diameter established was 45 cm for sawmilling wood and 35 cm for wood used as firewood Growth time was calculated using the following equation Equation 1 where Ty is the time it takes for one tree in diameter class i to transition to the next class j Wiis the interval width of class i cm I is the mean annual diameter increment in class i cm year The next procedure was to calculate the transition coefficient using Equation 2 where P 7 is the coefficient of transition from period to period 7 represented in the percentage of individuals moving from one diameter class to the next class S is the tree survival rate in the diameter class The coefficient of permanence was calculated with the following equation Equation 3 where Q is the coefficient of permanence in the period represented by the percentage of individuals w
9. if the quality of seeds supplied for their systems had been tested by laboratory trials The combination of genetic physical physiologic and sanitary attributes determines seed quality and are essential to determine the success of tree growth and higher market value of trees Popinigis 1983 FAO 1987 Lima Junior et al 24 2005 Lima Junior 2010 Nyoka ef a 2014 Pritchard ef a 2014 Agroforestry systems have the advantage of offering short term economic benefits through agricultural yields while timber harvest benefits can be expected over medium to long time scales Kent and Ammour 2012 Nevertheless without appropriate resources and knowledge for tree management the timber production in agroforestry systems may present less feasibility than expected by farmers Table 3 Average annual costs crop production and trees harvest in different agroforestry systems of Nicaragua and Honduras Average Average annual cost of annual Number f trees System crop crop Unit harvested ha Year management production US ha ha 19 C alliodora 20 Coffee Cedrela Cordia 350 00 16 5 Quintal 18 C odorata 20 Coffee Swietenia 350 00 15 5 Quintal 40 24 SSP Pinus 500 00 10 500 L 20 each 10 SSP Tabebuia 475 00 9 000 L 5 each 6 Cocoa Cordia 192 00 7 Quintal 11 20 Live Fence Cedrela ii i 31 20 However assuming two scenarios of discount rates to calculate the NPV 6 and 12 of crop and timber revenues shows that agrofor
10. mercadeo de productos maderables provenientes de sistemas silvopastoriles en Cop n Honduras M Sc Thesis Turrialba Costa Rica Centro Agron mico Tropical de Investigaci n y Ense anza 155 p Beer J 2000 Linderos maderables Jn M ndez E Beer J Faustino J Otarola A eds 2000 Pl ntaci n de rboles en l nea Turrialba Costa Rica CATIE p 69 80 Materiales de ense anza 29 Beer J Ibrahim M Somarriba E Barrance A Leakey R 2009 Establecimiento y manejo de rboles en sistemas agroforestales 198 242 p Arboles de Centroam rica 1 Beer J 2012 Producci n de rboles maderables en linderos Jn Detlefsen G Somarriba E eds 2012 Producci n de madera en sistemas agroforestales de Centroam rica Turrialba Costa Rica CATIE p 199 210 Technical Series Available in http finnfor catie ac cr admin documents 208 Bertomeu M 2006 Financial evaluation of smallholder timber based agroforestry systems in Claveria Northern Mindanao the Philippines Small scale Forestry 5 1 57 81 doi 10 1007 s11842 006 0004 6 2008 Can Smallholder Tree Farmers Help Revive the Timber Industry in Deforested Tropical Countries A Case Study from Southern Philippines Zn Snelder D Lasco R eds 2008 Smallholder Tree Growing for Rural Development and Environmental Services Springer Netherlands p 177 191 Advances in Agroforestry doi 10 1007 978 1 4020 8261 0_8 Borge W A C 2009 Producci n de
11. 84 Swietenia macrophylla Nicaragua Cocoa 20 0 35 1 90 Nicaragua Coffee 140 1 38 17 40 Tabebuia rosea Honduras _Live fence 8 0 06 0 12 Nicaragua _ Silvopastoral 40 0 27 1 86 Timber yields in live fences with 44 trees ha 110 trees kmt of C odorata and 8 trees ha 20 trees km of 7 rosea showed a correlation with higher rates of PAI for C odorata 11 12 m3 ha and lower rates for 7 rosea 0 12 m3 ha Low increment rates for 7 rosea in live fences are due to the dominance of C odorata which has higher initial growth rates and suppresses growth of 7 rosea Even so planting timber species in live fences is a great strategy for smallholders Viera and Pineda 2004 Bertomeu 2006 Borzone ef al 2007 and Beer 2012 reported significant results for growing timber species in homogenous live fences The authors demonstrate that timber yields in these systems are superior to trees in blocks due to the absence of lateral competition for light 22 2 647 T rosea Low 1 80 Cocoa e 7 A oO A a 0 964 Pastureland N D x C alliodora lt Nicaragua Live fence 0 124 P pee S macrophylla C odorata i py High Honduras Moderate coffee A 0 72 y T T T 1 1 07 0 20 0 66 1 53 2 39 Axis 1 28 34 0 PAI Basal Area m Species A System Country Fig 3 Basal area growth m2 ha year from different tree populations of agroforestry systems in Honduras and Nicaragua Biplot obtained by first two axis from a multiple c
12. Article 1 Timber yields from smallholder agroforestry systems a case study from two Central American territories ABSTRACT The importance of tropical timber for human activities is increasing and developed countries are widely recognized for tropical timber production However the timber supply from tropical forests has been greatly impacted by increasing deforestation associated with complex and restrictive timber harvest laws In Central America as well as in other developing regions reforestation programs have often been less successful than planned In these cases agroforestry presents a useful strategy to promote a tropical timber supply from smallholders rural development and provisions of environmental services We evaluated the effects of crop management on timber yields and potential revenues of timber sales in four types of agroforestry systems silvopastoral coffee cocoa and live fence in Nicacentral Nicaragua and Honduran Trifinio Honduras The results suggest that smallholder timber production in agroforestry systems is a profitable activity despite having lower market prices than timber from forests due to the absence and lack of knowledge of silvicultural practices The net present value from timber sales represents 11 to 49 of the total revenue of agroforestry systems However this amount could be 58 higher if farmers were to manage trees to achieve better tree quality Encouraging the knowledge and adoption of silvicul
13. Marmillod D Scheelje M Ibrahim M 2012 Protocolo para la instalaci n de parcelas permanentes de medici n de la producci n maderable en sistemas agroforestales de Centroam rica Turrialba Costa Rica CATIE 19 p Manual t cnico no 107 doi 978 9977 57 574 2 Available in http finnfor catie ac cr admin documents 184 Detlefsen G Scheelje M 2012 Las normativas legales y el aprovechamiento de la madera en fincas Jn Detlefsen G Somarriba E eds 2012 Producci n de madera en sistemas agroforestales de Centroam rica Turrialba Costa Rica CATIE p 211 244 Technical Series Available in http finnfor catie ac cr admin documents 208 Detlefsen G Somarriba E 2012 Producci n de madera en sistemas agroforestales de Centroam rica 1 ed Detlefsen G Somarriba E eds Turrialba Costa Rica CATIE 244 p Manual t cnico no 109 Di Rienzo J A Casanoves F Balzarini M G Gonzalez L Tablada M Robledo C W 2014 InfoStat versi n 24 03 2011 ed C rdoba Argentina Universidad Nacional de C rdoba Available in http www infostat com ar Esquivel Mimenza H Ibrahimb M Harvey C A Benjamin T Sinclair F L 2011 Dispersed trees in pasturelands of cattle farms in a tropical dry ecosystem Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems 14 2011 933 941 Available in http www scielo org mx pdf tsa v14n3 v14n336 pdf Esquivel M J Harvey C A Finegan B Casanoves F Skarpe C 2008 Effects of
14. PSP were set up in 2010 in Nicacentro and 2011 in Trifinio in agroforestry systems with different timber species including silvopastoral systems coffee farms cocoa farms and live fences Twenty seven PSPs were evaluated including 10 circular plots with 0 5 ha in silvopastoral systems rectangular plots with 0 1 ha in coffee 10 plots and cocoa systems 3 plots and 4 lineal plots with 100 m in live fence systems Tree inventory methodology was conducting the following recommendations from Detlefsen ef a 2012 who developed a protocol to measure trees in agroforestry systems Diameter at breast height DBH commercial and total height stem form mortality and natural regeneration were evaluated in each PSP in 2010 2011 2012 and 2014 in Nicaragua and in 2011 2012 and 2014 in Trifinio A smartphone based data collection method was adopted in 2014 to assist in PSP measuring in both regions To measure the population dynamics three development stages were considered i recruits 0 1 m height lt 0 3 m ii saplings 0 3 m gt height lt 1 5 m and DBH lt 5 0 cm iii trees DBH gt 5 0 cm Multiple measurements were taken to estimate periodical annual increments PAI of basal area and timber volume Using InfoStat Di Rienzo ef a 2014 correspondence analyses were performed to demonstrate the association of growth in basal area and timber volume between regions systems and species According to the ranges observed for PAI
15. armers considering that it reduces investments on seedling production nurseries and planting as well as reduces the dependency on external seed sources and foreign technologies Ibrahim and Zapata 2012 In addition trees from natural regeneration may show higher resistance to microclimatic site conditions Plath et a 2011 which can contribute to their growth and yields 3 2 Timber yields Table 1 presents the results of the PAIs of basal area and timber volume for each species as well as the frequency systems and countries where they occur The results demonstrate an effect of the system on the PAIs of basal area and timber volume from Nicaragua and Honduras Fig 3 and Fig 4 The practice of silvicultural management pruning and thinning was not identified in the populations and systems studied the main reason is the lack of knowledge about trees requirements Somarriba ef a 2001a Santos Martin ef al 2011 High rates of basal area growth and timber volume are related to silvopastoral systems and live fences with P oocarpa and C odorata as the most frequent species respectively and are also related to higher increments In an average population of 88 trees ha dispersed in natural pastureland P oocarpa had a PAI of 12 84 m2 ha year in timber volume Relevant information for timber yields of P taeda a species of genus Pinus which has similar environmental requirements was presented by USDA 2000 from silvopastoral syste
16. class limit cm cm year survival P Q Pinus oocarpa R 0 50 0 90 0 45 0 45 S 2 50 0 50 0 25 0 25 10 0 78 0 90 0 14 0 76 15 1 38 0 95 0 26 0 69 20 1 32 0 95 0 25 0 7 25 1 16 0 95 0 22 0 73 30 0 86 0 95 0 16 0 79 35 0 98 0 95 0 19 0 76 40 0 98 0 95 0 19 0 76 Tabebuia rosea R 0 50 0 05 0 03 0 03 S 2 28 0 60 0 27 0 33 10 1 68 0 60 0 2 0 4 15 1 58 0 95 0 3 0 65 20 1 44 0 95 0 27 0 68 25 1 34 0 98 0 15 0 7 We developed the population dynamic projection associated with timber harvest plans for silvopastoral systems with P oocarpa and 7 rosea where the natural regeneration was expressive Timber harvest of these species can be done sustainably by using proper management of the natural regeneration Table 4 presents the growth rate and transition coefficients of both species 27 30 A 25 T 20 lt Y ye nt nil 10 aa gt nt 11 5 nt 12 0 Diameter upper class limit cm Fig 7 Simulation of population dynamic of Pinus oocarpa with natural regeneration in pasturelands of Honduras with an average tree population of 88 trees ha and 30 seedlings ha and a timber harvesting cycle of 20 trees hat each 10 years R recruits S sapling H harvest Assuming the current average population of trees in silvopastoral systems of P oocarpa 88 trees ha and the growth rates that we found within these systems 20 trees ha DBH gt 45 cm can be harvested every 10 years Fig 7 The minimal
17. ction We estimate the timber price of a standing tree for sawmilling purchased at the farm considering the stem quality of trees in the agroforestry systems evaluated in this study Table 2 Table 2 Estimated timber price of a standing tree to sawmilling DBH 45 cm from agroforestry systems in Honduras and Nicaragua The price of 7 rosea represents the local price of a tree to firewood DBH gt 35 cm Average Species Board foot price Timber price harvesting Tree price US US m3 tree volume US tree m3 tree Pinus oocarpa 0 70 296 59 0 80 237 27 Cedrela odorata 0 95 402 52 0 90 360 25 Cordia alliodora 0 25 105 93 1 03 109 10 Swietenia macrophylla 1 75 741 48 1 23 912 01 Tabebuia rosea 3 85 1 30 5 01 We found that trees from agroforestry systems have lower values than trees from natural forests both in the local and international market Buyer s reports illustrate that trees from agroforestry systems generally have irregular stem form and low timber quality Furthermore the absence of silvicultural management and the low quality of the seeds offered to farmers can be noted as reasons for the low quality of timber Hoch et al 2012 noted that the lack of financial support and the insufficient access to good planting material may be reasons for the uncertainty of timber quality of wood from agroforestry systems as well as from other reforestation programs in the Amazon In our case study farmers could not tell
18. de Centroam rica Turrialba Costa Rica CATIE p 91 111 Technical Series Available in http finnfor catie ac cr admin documents 208 Leiva E R 2011 Efectos del marco pol tico y legislativo en el aprovechamiento de la madera de sistemas agroforestales del Municipio de El Cu Nicaragua M Sc Thesis Turrialba Costa Rica Centro Agron mico Tropical de Investigaci n y Ense anza 177 p Lima Junior M J V Ellis R H Hong T D Ferraz 1 D K 2005 Drying method influences the development of germinability dessication tolerance and subsequent longevity of immature seeds of suma ma Seed Science and Technology 33 1 147 156 Lima Junior M J V 2010 Manual de procedimentos para an lise de sementes florestais Lima Junior M J V ed Londrina Brazil Associac o Brasileira de Tecnologia de Sementes ABRATES 83 p L pez A Detlefsen G 2012 Agroforester a y la producci n de madera n Detlefsen G Somarriba E eds 2012 Producci n de madera en sistemas agroforestales de Centroam rica Turrialba Costa Rica CATIE p 9 20 Technical Series Available in http finnfor catie ac cr admin documents 208 Nyoka B Roshetko J Jamnadass R Muriuki J Kalinganire A Lillesg J P Beedy T Cornelius J 2014 Tree Seed and Seedling Supply Systems A Review of the Asia Africa and Latin America Models Small scale Forestry 1 21 doi 10 1007 s11842 014 9280 8 Orozco L 2012 Instrumentos y pol tica forestal
19. de Nicaragua Implicaciones para el fomento de los sistemas silvopastoriles Turrialba Costa Rica CATIE 2 p Policy Brief Available in http finnfor catie ac cr admin documents 197 Peri P L Bloomberg M 2002 Windbreaks in southern Patagonia Argentina A review of research on growth models windspeed reduction and effects oncrops Agroforestry Systems 56 2 129 144 doi 10 1023 A 1021314927209 Plata O F 2012 An lisis ex ante del aprovechamiento maderable de rboles en potrero con implementaci n de pr cticas silviculturales en sistemas silvopastoriles en Esparza 32 Costa Rica M Sc Thesis Turrilba Costa Rica Centro Agron mico Tropical de Investigaci n y Ense anza 123 p Plath M Mody K Potvin C Dorn S 2011 Do multipurpose companion trees affect high value timber trees in a silvopastoral plantation system Agroforestry Systems 81 1 79 92 doi 10 1007 s10457 010 9308 9 Popinigis F 1983 A germinac o das sementes 2 ed Brasilia Brazil Pax Gr fica e Fotolito Ltda 289 p Pritchard H W Moat J F Ferraz J B S Marks T R Camargo J L C Nadarajan J Ferraz 1 D K 2014 Innovative approaches to the preservation of forest trees Forest Ecology and Management 1 1 11 doi 10 1016 j foreco 2014 08 012 Pulido Santacruz P Renjifo L 2011 Live fences as tools for biodiversity conservation a study case with birds and plants Agroforestry Systems 81 1 15 30 doi 10 1007 s10457 010 9331
20. e observed that the natural regeneration of the studied timber species was expressively presented for P oocarpa and T rosea in silvopastoral systems with natural grass Coffee cocoa and live fence systems showed an inexpressive or absent presence of natural regeneration due to the agricultural practices in crop management and weed control A strategy to maintain tree benefits and timber revenues without compromising the crop production is the seed collection from trees in the systems and seedling production in nurseries In coffee systems the seedling production could be associated with the production of coffee seedlings on farms We recommend the transplantation of dispersal seedlings of 7 rosea to live fences to promote the apical growth and improve the stem quality for sawmilling Fostering knowledge about silvicultural management and access to quality seeds are essential to improve the revenues from timer sales in smallholder s agroforestry systems Acknowledgments We would like to thank the farmers and field technicians for their contributions in the establishment of the Permanent Sample Plots and data collection This research received financial support from Project Finnfor CATIE Costa Rica The Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland and Natura Inovac o e Tecnologia de Produtos Brazil Thanks to Lindsey Hethcote for the English editing References Apaza A 2011 Potencialidades socio econ micas de la producci n procesamiento y
21. estry systems are still profitable to smallholders The NPV from timber revenues in a scenario of 6 of the discount rate are more pronounced mainly in coffee and cocoa systems Fig 5 NPV 12 _ Crop C Timber 1 2 275007 NPV 6 im Crop al Timber IRR 1 0 2 220007 08 02 B gt 165004 2 u S 06 0 8 g 11000 0 4 E 5 E J g 5500 0 2 0 SHR FERA a 0 0 Coffee Cedrela Cordia Coffee Swietenia SSP Pinus SSP Tabebuia Cocoa Cordia Live fence Cedrela Fig 5 Net present value by revenues NPV from crop production and timber sales and Internal rate for return IRR for different agroforestry systems in Nicaragua and Honduras considering two scenarios of discount rate of NPV 6 and 12 over twenty four years Silvopastoral systems with P oocarpa need no intensive silvicultural management and have the best IRR and NPV of timber sales in both scenarios In Nicaragua trees on silvopastoral systems with 7 rosea are managed for firewood production and are less profitable from an economic perspective a tree with an average volume of 1 3 m is sold by US 5 in the local market We developed harvesting plans according to the population dynamics of both species farmers can harvest 20 trees ha of P oocarpa every 10 years and 5 trees hat of 7 rosea every 6 years Results of population dynamics are explained in 25 the next section According to our estimation net revenues
22. fferent agroforestry systems in Nicaragua and Honduras over twenty four years Agroforestry systems with coffee and S macrophylla demonstrate important revenues and according to our estimation have the second highest NPV from timber revenues in both scenarios of discount rates Fig 5 However NPV for revenues of timber sales could be 58 higher than current values if the trees on coffee Swietenia agroforestry system had been managed to acquire higher market prices assuming that a standing tree of S macrophylla with high stem quality can be sold for US 1 300 Even receiving less income from timber sales due to the low quality of stem the estimated cash flows of the studied systems show that the timber sales are responsible for important revenue increases for smallholder farmers Fig 6 26 3 4 Population dynamics We found an expressive incidence of natural regeneration in silvopastoral systems with natural grass that include silvopastoral systems with P oocarpa and 7 rosea The effects of pastureland management on tree cover and natural regeneration occurrence were presented by some researchers in Latin America Sim n ef a 1998 Ibrahim and Camargo 2001 Camargo ef al 2005 Esquivel et a 2008 Esquivel Mimenza ef a 2011 Harvey et al 2011 In our study the frequency of seedlings was 74 superior in silvopastoral pastureland with natural grass as opposed to pasturelands with brizantha grass Brachiaria brizantha The freque
23. from timber sales in silvopastoral systems with P oocarpa under this harvesting plan are 64 superior an increment of US 4 800 hat Fig 6 in the years of timber harvest each 10 years However financial contributions from timber sales of 7 rosea in silvopastoral systems are less only 2 of total net revenues in the years of timber harvest due to the population dynamics and the strategy of timber sale observed It is important to highlight that despite having lower NPV than others systems live fences are an alternative to take advantage of important financial returns from underutilized areas of farms Beer ef a 2009 and low NPV does not indicate an unprofitable activity In our study live fences of C odorata yield US 483 year with a total income of US 9 660 at the 20 year mark where trees are sold at 31 trees ha Trees in live fences also provide aesthetic benefits to farms Beer 2000 ecological connectivity and conservation of biodiversity Harvey et a 2005 Chac n and Harvey 2006 Pulido Santacruz and Renjifo 2011 Harvey 2013 wind protection and disease and erosion control Cleugh 1998 Faustino 2000 Peri and Bloomberg 2002 35000 0 10000 p wh a 2 5000 8 ce gt fa 0 5000 Year Coffee Swietenia Coffee Cedrela Cordia SSP Pinus SSP Tabebuia Live fence Cedrela Cocoa Cordia Fig 6 Cash flow US ha t from crop production and timber sales in di
24. ho remain in the diameter class In the latter procedure the following matrix equation was applied Equation 4 where nt 1 and n represent the diameter distribution trees hat between successive years tandt 1 3 Results and discussion 3 1 Timber species diversity Forty six species were identified and 66 of those species were classified as timber species Pinus oocarpa Tabebuia rosea Swietenia macrophylla Cordia alliodora and 20 Cedrela odorata represent 83 of the accumulated frequency of timber species Fig 2 Information about the frequency of these species is described by several authors for coffee cocoa and pastureland systems in different regions of Latin America Camargo ef a 1999 Ibrahim and Camargo 2001 Camargo et a 2005 Esquivel Mimenza ef a 2011 L pez and Detlefsen 2012 Salgado 2012 Somarriba ef a 2014 Others 10 Quercus elliptica 1 Terminalia amazonia 2 Cedrela odorata 5 Cordia alliodora 7 Pinus oocarpa 51 Swietenia macrophylla 7 Tabebuia rosea 17 Fig 2 Accumulated abundance of timber species in cocoa coffee silvopastoral and live fence agroforestry systems identified in Honduran Trifinio and Nicacentral Except for C odorata and S macrophylla that were planted by the farmers the other species found in the study P oocarpa T rosea and C alliodora came from natural regeneration The management of natural regeneration may provide advantages for f
25. madera y carbono en la regeneraci n de sistemas agroforestales en la reserva ind gena de Talamanca Costa Rica Ciencia e Interculturalidad 2 2 108 130 Available in http revistas uraccan edu ni index php Interculturalidad article view 148 Borzone H A Bardi J F Laddaga J E 2007 Crecimiento de Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh cultivado como cortina en un establecimiento agropecuario del Partido de Azul Pcia de Bs AS Quebracho 1 14 65 73 Available in http www scielo org ar scielo php pid S1851 30262007000100008 script sci_arttext Camargo J C Ibrahim M Somarriba E Finegan B Current D 1999 Factores ecol gicos y socioecon micos que influyen en la regeneraci n natural del laurel Cordia alliodora en sistemas silvopastoriles del tr pico h medo y subh medo de Costa Rica Agroforester a en las Am ricas 7 26 46 52 Available in www fao org wairdocs lead x6336s X6336S00 htm RESUMEN Camargo J C Feijoo A Z iga M C Cardona H Gaviria J 2005 Silvopastoral systems with isolated timber trees within pastures in the Coffee region of Colombia Livestock Research for Rural Development 17 5 Available in www Irrd org Irrd17 5 cama17051 htm Chacon M Harvey C A 2006 Live fences and landscape connectivity in a neotropical agricultural landscape Agroforestry Systems 68 1 15 26 doi 10 1007 s10457 005 5831 5 Chavarria A Detlefsen G Ibrahim M Galloway G Camino R d 2011 Analisis
26. ms and by Cubbage et a 2012 from alley crop systems which found an annual increment of 11 8 m3 ha 100 trees hat and 7 6 m3 ha in the timber volumes respectively 21 Nevertheless lower annual increments of timber volume 1 86 m3 hat and stem quality were found in silvopastoral systems with 40 trees ha of 7 rosea Trees dispersed in silvopastoral systems generally present low timber quality for sawmilling due to the absence of competition for light and the presence of some traits that restrict the growth in opened areas Cruz et a 2010 Ibrahim and Zapata 2012 Table 1 Periodical annual increment PAI of basal area and timber volume from different tree populations of agroforestry systems in Honduras and Nicaragua Basal area growth is classified into low 0 1 to 1 0 moderate 1 1 to 2 0 and high gt 2 1 Timber volume growth rate is classified into low 0 1 to 3 0 moderate 3 1 to 6 0 and high gt 6 1 PAI Basal area PAI Timber volume Species Country System F trees ha m2 ha year m ha year Cordia alliodora Honduras Coffee 52 1 61 4 50 Nicaragua Cocoa 40 0 63 2 70 Nicaragua Coffee 60 0 86 4 20 Nicaragua Live fence 24 0 10 1 00 Nicaragua Silvopastoral 14 0 08 0 54 Cedrela odorata Honduras Coffee 80 2 16 7 30 Honduras Live fence 44 1 55 11 12 Nicaragua Cocoa 50 0 40 2 00 Nicaragua Coffee 210 1 09 8 90 Nicaragua _ Silvopastoral 8 0 06 0 48 Pinus oocarpa Honduras _ Silvopastoral 88 2 87 12
27. ncy of seedlings and saplings were also 52 and 31 superior respectively in pasturelands with natural grass Natural regeneration of C alliodora in cocoa systems is seen as well as other species in coffee and live fence systems According to interviews with farmers the main reason for the absence of natural regeneration in these systems are the agricultural practices used for weed control by farmers The same information was reported by some authors in Central America Camargo ef a 1999 Ibrahim and Camargo 2001 Esquivel ef a 2008 A strategy to promote the sustainability timber harvest and trees benefits of these systems without compromising the crop production and management is to encourage the collection of seeds from the trees and the creation of nurseries in the farms Nurseries in coffee and cocoa systems have been a common practice over the years when replacing coffee cocoa trees is necessary during the field research we observed farmers managing nurseries of coffee trees With these nurseries farmers could produce seedlings from the timber trees associated with coffee seedlings Table 4 Growth survival and transitions coefficients for a population of Pinus oocarpa and Tabebuia rosea with natural regeneration in pasturelands R recruits S sapling P individuals that move to next diameter class Q individuals that stay in the same diameter class Transition Species Diameter upper Grow rate Annual coefficients
28. neraci n natural en cacaotales y bananales de ind genas de Talamanca Costa Rica Agroforester a en las Am ricas 9 35 36 50 54 33 Toru o I 2012 An lisis financiero econ mico de fincas con varias actividades productivas y el rol de la familia en la producci n y toma de decisiones en el Centro Norte de Nicaragua M Sc Thesis Turrialba Costa Rica Centro Agron mico Tropical de Investigaci n y Ense anza 157 p USDA United States Department of Agriculture USA 2000 From pine forest to a silvopasture system United States of America USDA 4 p Agroforestry Notes 18 Viera C J Pineda A 2004 Productividad de lindero maderable de Cedrela odorata Agronom a mesoamericana 15 1 85 92 Available in http teca fao org es read 3712 Virginio Filho E M Barrios M Morales 1 T 2009 C mo podemos mejorar la finca cafetalera en la cuenca Managua Nicaragua CATIE 71 p Capacitaci n agricola gu as 1 34
29. orrespondence analysis Periodical annual increment PAI of basal area growth is classified into low 0 1 to 1 0 moderate 1 1 to 2 0 and high gt 2 1 2 907 T rosea cal Pastureland gt P oocarpa EN Low a rox J o Y 1 057 Cocoa N 2 x lt C alliodora Live fence Honduras 0 137 Nicaragua High Moderate C Ooratag 9 E S macrophylla WM A Coffee 0 80 r T T T 1 1 79 0 76 0 27 1 30 2 33 Axis 1 22 05 7 PAI Timber volume E Species A System 4 Country Fig 4 Timber yields m3 ha year from different tree populations of agroforestry systems in Honduras and Nicaragua Biplot obtained by first two axis from a multiple correspondence analysis Periodical annual increment PAI of timber volume is classified into low 0 1 to 3 0 moderate 3 1 to 6 0 and high 2 6 1 Coffee systems as well as S macrophylla C odorata and C alliodora the main species in these systems are correlated with moderate and high increases of the PAIs of basal area and timber volume Fig 3 and Fig 4 These farmers manage a high density of S macrophylla 140 trees ha and C odorata 210 trees hat and this is the reason for the high increments of timber volume Table 1 High densities in the early years of the systems is a strategy to control vertical tree height growth as well as avoid the growth of branches However to best take advantage of timber yields while not affecting coffee production it 23 is necessary to
30. pasture management on the natural regeneration of neotropical trees Journal of Applied Ecology 45 1 371 380 doi 10 1111 j 1365 2664 2007 01411 x FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations Italy 1987 A guide to forest seed handling with special reference to the tropics Willan R L ed Rome Italy FAO FAO Forestry Paper 2 Available in http www fao org docrep 006 ad232e ad232e00 htm 2013 Advancing Agroforestry on the Policy Agenda A guide for decision makers Place F Gauthier M eds Rome Italy Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations 49 p Agroforestry Working Paper 1 Available in http www fao org docrep 017 i13182e i3182e00 pdf 2014 State of the World s Forests Enhancing the socioeconomic benefits from forests Rome Italy Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations 145 p State of the World s Forests doi 978 92 5 308270 4 Available in http www fao org 3 a i3710e pdf Faustino J 2000 Cortinas rompevientos Jn M ndez E Beer J Faustino J Otarola A eds 2000 Pl ntaci n de rboles en l nea Turrialba Costa Rica CATIE p 23 41 Materiales de ense anza Haggar J P Schibli C Staver C 2001 C mo manejar rboles de sombra en cafetales Agroforester a en las Am ricas 8 29 37 41 Harvey C A Villanueva C Villacis J Chac n M Mu oz D L pez M Ibrahim M G mez R Taylor R Martinez J Navas A Saenz
31. rate of the species and the low prices found in the local market Adoption of another market strategy sale to sawmilling could improve revenue of timber sales in these systems We recommend the 28 transplantation of dispersal seedlings of 7 rosea to high density homogenous live fences considering that this species were suppressed when associated with another species to promote the apical growth improve the stem quality for sawmilling and avoid stem furcation Beer 2000 4 Conclusions This study demonstrates the effects of agroforestry system management on timber yields and farm revenues The most expressive timber yields NPV and IRR were observed in silvopastoral systems with P oocarpa coffee systems with C odorata and C alliodora coffee systems with S macrophylla and live fences of C odorata In all systems the practice of silvicultural management formative pruning and thinning by farmers was not observed Absence of silvicultural management as well as low seed quality resulted in low Sale values of the trees In coffee systems with S macrophylla for example the price of trees could be 58 higher than the current price if trees were managed Even so the analysis of NPV and IRR in these systems indicate that sales of timber is a profitable activity for smallholders Timber for sawmilling revenues represent 11 49 of the NPV of agroforestry systems depending on the type of system species and discount rate Furthermore w
32. reduce tree density by thinning Haggar et a 2001 Somarriba et a 2001a Salgado 2012 assuming the optimal level of shade in coffee systems is between 20 50 depending on the environmental conditions and altitudinal ranges Haggar et al 2001 Virginio Filho ef a 2009 Results for timber yields of C alliodora in cocoa systems contrasts with the data reported by Somarriba ef a 2014 in Central American cocoa systems The authors reported an increment of 4 43 m3 ha in an average population of 48 trees ha Low increments in the cocoa systems may be associated with the age of the trees In another study undertaken in cocoa systems of Central America Somarriba ef a 2012 reported that trees present a fast growth rate until reaching 30 34 cm of DAP followed by a period of slow growth In our study the average DAP of the trees in cocoa systems was 31 cm It was observed that the absence of pruning of C odorata in coffee systems results in irregular growth of trees and stimulates the formation of branches damaging the quality of the wood When comparing the growth of C odorata between live fence and coffee systems the possibility is noted that even with higher growth of basal area in coffee systems 2 16 m2 ha in coffee versus 1 55 m2 ha in live fences the timber yields are lower due to malformation of the stem 7 30 m3 ha in coffee versus 11 12 m3 ha in live fences 3 3 Financial attractiveness of agroforestry timber produ
33. rom agroforestry systems is a great economic option for farmers considering it can provide higher revenues than traditional crop systems and can reduce costs of weeding and pest control of associated crops Bertomeu 2006 Somarriba et a 2012 Nevertheless Central America lacks a market that values agroforestry products especially timber and the complex legal situation regarding timber may decrease farmer interest in participating in these types of production systems Detlefsen ef a 2008 Cruz ef a 2010 Leiva 2011 Scheelje et a 2011 Detlefsen and Scheelje 2012 Orozco 2012 Plata 2012 FAO 2013 Furthermore incorrect species selection for each agroforestry system Ibrahim and Zapata 2012 Salgado 2012 and lack of knowledge about tree growth and silvicultural management Somarriba et a 2001a Santos Martin ef a 2011 decreases the potential for higher timber yields and other market advantages from these systems There is no doubt that tropical agroforestry systems may contribute to the global hardwood demand in a sustainable way To change the paradigm of timber harvesting in the tropics it is necessary to strengthen knowledge about potential timber yields and agroforestry management This research aims to evaluate timber yields from agroforestry systems and financial contributions from the timber for smallholder farmers in coffee cocoa live fence and silvopastoral agroforestry systems in Nicacentro Nicaragua and Trifinio Honduras
34. tition within an ecosystem may generate higher timber yields than homogeneous timber forests Many research projects that have focused on timber yields from smallholder agroforestry systems show the potential of tropical timber production Somarriba ef a 2001a Somarriba et a 2001b Viera and Pineda 2004 Borge 2009 Cruz ef a 2010 Chavarr a ef a 2011 Somarriba and Beer 17 2011 Detlefsen and Somarriba 2012 Ibrahim and Zapata 2012 Jim nez 2012 Somarriba et al 2014 In agroforestry systems timber is one of the main sources of long term income Timber also represents a strategy for crisis prevention in the case of crop system failures especially during droughts pest incidences and market strikes Camargo et a 1999 Ibrahim and Pezo 2012 Somarriba ef a 2014 In coffee systems for example income from timber yield is significant ranging between 6 and 83 of total farm revenue depending on the current market prices and quality of the wood Jim nez 2012 In agroforestry pasturelands the income generated by the sustainable use of trees can reach between 69 to 480 US ha Plata 2012 These revenues represent between 2 2 and 15 of the total net income of a silvopastoral system with dual purpose cattle production In cocoa systems in Honduras at 21 years of production farmers may have a total income of approximately 65 026 US ha 1 with 85 of this income coming from timber production Somarriba et a 2012 Timber f
35. tural practice in agroforestry systems is an important endeavor to foster and increase timber sales from smallholder farmers in Central America Keywords timber yields smallholders agroforestry Central America 1 Introduction Timber is a crucial worldwide forest resource ITTO 2013 that provides energy and other benefits for developing and developed countries FAO 2014 Tropical timber hardwood has special trade value due to its high mechanical resistance varied colors textures and applicability However deforestation from agricultural activities the expansion of areas under forest protection and complex laws concerning timber harvesting have decreased the legal tropical timber supply especially in Central America Ibrahim and Camargo 2001 L pez and Detlefsen 2012 FAO 2013 ITTO 2013 Large scale reforestation was expected to be a successful solution for issues with the timber supply and trade however recent history reveals that reforestation projects have often been less successful than planned and are responsible for generating several territorial conflicts Bertomeu 2008 Snelder and Lasco 2008 Timber supply from smallholder agroforestry systems may be an alternative means to promote both timber production and sustainable land use however this topic has received relatively little attention from policy makers in developing countries Scheelje et a 2011 FAO 2013 Diversity amongst agroforestry systems that creates high compe
36. x Salgado J 2012 Producci n de madera en sistemas agroforestales con caf Jn Detlefsen G Somarriba E eds 2012 Producci n de madera en sistemas agroforestales de Centroam rica Turrialba Costa Rica CATIE p 145 160 Technical Series Available in http finnfor catie ac cr admin documents 208 Santos Martin F Bertomeu M van Noordwijk M Navarro R 2011 Why smallholders plant native timber trees lessons from the Philippines Bogor Indonesia ASB Partnership and ICRAF 4 p Policy Brief Available in http outputs worldagroforestry org record 6570 files ICRAF 2014 414 pdf Scheelje M Detlefsen G Ibrahim M Chavarr a A 2011 Honduras la simplificaci n de tr mites para el manejo y comercializaci n de rboles maderables en fincas ganaderas puede estimular la incorporaci n y manejo de rboles en forma sustentable por parte de peque os productores Turrialba Costa Rica CATIE 2 p Policy Brief Available in http finnfor catie ac cr admin documents 45 Sim n M Ibrahim M Finegan B Pezo D 1998 Efectos del pastoreo bovino sobre la regeneraci n de tres especies arb reas comerciales del chaco argentino un m todo de protecci n Available in ftp ftp fao org docrep nonfao lead X63225 X6322500 pdf Snelder D J Lasco R D 2008 Smallholder Tree Growing in South and Southeast Asia n Snelder D Lasco R eds 2008 Smallholder Tree Growing for Rural Development and Environmental Services
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