World Aquaculture: Environmental Impacts and Troubleshooting
Contents
1. Defoirdt N Boon and W Ver straete The basics of bio flocs technology the added value for aquaculture Aquaculture vol 277 no 3 4 pp 125 137 2008 D D Kuhn G D Boardman S R Craig G J Flick and E Mc Lean Use of microbial flocs generated from tilapia ef fluent as a nutritional supplement for shrimp litopenaeus van namei in recirculating aquaculture systems Journal of the World Aquaculture Society vol 39 no 1 pp 72 82 2008 78 79 80 81 oo Ww 84 J M E Hussenot Emerging effluent management strategies in marine fish culture farms located in European coastal wet lands Aquaculture vol 226 no 1 4 pp 113 128 2003 J Liu Z Wang and W Lin De eutrophication of effluent wastewater from fish aquaculture by using marine green alga Ulva pertusa Chinese Journal of Oceanology and Limnology vol 28 no 2 pp 201 208 2010 Y Zhou H Yang H Hu et al Bioremediation potential of the macroalga Gracilaria lemaneiformis Rhodophyta inte grated into fed fish culture in coastal waters of north China Aquaculture vol 252 no 2 4 pp 264 276 2006 F J Martinez Cordero and P Leung Sustainable aquaculture and producer performance measurement of environmentally adjusted productivity and efficiency of a sample of shrimp farms in Mexico Aquaculture vol 241 no 1 4 pp 249 268 2004 F Corsin S Funge Smith and J Clause2. India Aquaculture In ternational vol 12 pp 555 572 2005 C Lezama Cervantes J J Paniagua Michel and J Zamora Castro Bioremediacion of effluents ones of the culture of Litopenaeus vannamei Boone 1931 using microbial mats in a recirculating system Latin American Journal of Aquatic Re search vol 38 no 1 pp 129 142 2010 M B Timmons J M Ebeling F W Wheaton S T Summer felt and B J Vinci Sistemas de Recirculaci n para la Acuicul tura Fundaci n Chile Vitacura Santiago de Chile Chile 2002 V H Rivera Monroy L A Torres N Bahamon F Newmark and R R Twilley The potential use of mangrove forests as nitrogen sinks of shrimp aquaculture pond effluents the role of denitrification Journal of the World Aquaculture Society vol 30 no 1 pp 12 25 1999 L R Martinez Cordova and M Martinez Porchas Poly culture of Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei giant oyster Crassostrea gigas and black clam Chione fluctifraga in ponds in Sonora Mexico Aquaculture vol 258 no 1 4 pp 321 326 2006 J Paniagua Michel and O Garcia Ex situ bioremediation of shrimp culture effluent using constructed microbial mats Aquacultural Engineering vol 28 no 3 4 pp 131 139 2003 P Chavez Crooker and J Obreque Contreras Bioremedia tion of aquaculture wastes Current Opinion in Biotechnology vol 21 no 3 pp 313 317 2010 P De Schryver R Crab T
3. and R Vinu Chandran Applica tions of remote sensing and GIS for sustainable management of shrimp culture in India Aquacultural Engineering vol 36 no 1 pp 1 17 2007 12 J H Tidwell and G L Allan Fish as food aquaculture s con tribution Ecological and economic impacts and contributions of fish farming and capture fisheries EMBO Reports vol 2 no 11 pp 958 963 2001 13 E J Olgu n M E Hern ndez and G S nchez Galv n Con taminaci n de manglares por hidrocarburos y estrategias de biorremediaci n fitorremediaci n y restauraci n Revista Internacional de Contaminacion Ambiental vol 23 no 3 pp 139 154 2007 14 E P ez Osuna Retos y perspectivas de la camaronicultura en la zona costera Revista Latinoamericana de Recursos Natur ales vol 1 pp 21 31 2005 15 D M Alongi Present state and future of the world s man grove forests Environmental Conservation vol 29 no 3 pp 331 349 2002 B B Walters P R nnb ck J M Kovacs et al Ethnobiol ogy socio economics and management of mangrove forests a review Aquatic Botany vol 89 no 2 pp 220 236 2008 um um 16 17 FAO El Estado Mundial de la Pesca y Acuicultura 2006 FAO Rome Italy 2007 18 R L Naylor R J Goldburg J H Primavera et al Effect of aquaculture on world fish supplies Nature vol 405 no 6790 pp 1017 1024 2000 19 G J Harper M K St
4. in situ ex situ biostimulation bioaugmentation and others Many successfully examples of bioremedia tion practices can be mentioned the use of plants phytoremediation macroalgae microalgae filter feeders biofilters polymer spheres with immobilized microorganisms biofilms and bioflocs 76 77 There are also combined systems which use two or more of these practices Many studies have been con ducted to use individual or combined organisms for bioremediation 78 80 However the ideal strategy would be the decreasing or complete halting of effl uent discharge and using zero water exchange sys tems 7 Achieve certification of compliance with sustainabil ity A combination of analyses has been suggested to evaluate the sustainability of commercial aquaculture farms 81 For example the authors of such contribution suggest the calcu lation of mass balances and undesirable outputs of shrimp farms calculation of the input distance function approach which provides a complete characterization of the structure of multiinput multioutput efficient production technology and provides a measure of the distance from each producer to that efficient sustainable technology finally a productivity measurement with and without undesirable outputs How ever the analysis of the socioeconomic impacts caused by farms ought to be included in the list Additionally certification processes can be followed to assure the sustainability of a
5. ter or continental waters and trophic level while IMTA is mostly referred to organisms from different trophic levels and inclusively different environments The implementation of such alternative systems im proves the nutrient cycling within the culture units In short while in a traditional aquaculture system 25 to 3596 of the nitrogen supplied is recuperated as biomass of the farmed organisms in a polyculture or IMTA the recuperation could be increased by more than 5096 A pilot project made aware and informed a group of participants about the benefits of IMTA the authors revealed that 5096 of the participants were willing to pay an extra 1096 of products labeled as of IMTA products Moreover the authors were opti mistic regarding the social impacts caused by the im plementation of IMTA as a sustainable practice 5 4 Since supplemental feed is considered the main source of contamination of aquaculture systems and effluent receiving ecosystems 56 the improvement of these feed as well as the feeding strategies could be considered as an important part of the solution for a sustainable aquaculture 28 57 The main aspects in which the feedstuffs must be improved include the following a Better and more precise formulations for the particu lar species to be farmed which consider the best con centration and quality of the nutrients A common practice of world aquaculture is the use of diets with protein contents h
6. and others Many of these ingredients have been suf ficiently proven 60 5 Regarding to the feeding strategies some important advances have been achieved but there are yet much more to advance in aspects such as forms to supply the feed adjust ment of the ration and frequency of feeding a The use of feeding trays and the increase of feeding frequency have been demonstrated to diminish the pollution potential of the effluents in shrimp farms 37 however these strategies are suitable only for high intensity systems intensive or superintensive but not economically feasible for extensive semiex tensive of semiintensive systems b The promotion management and rational utiliza tion of natural feed including microorganisms bio film biofloc are considered as a promising strategy for the culture of shrimp fishes and mollusks Some authors 61 63 have successfully enhanced the pro duction of zooplankton and benthos in shrimp ponds and demonstrated their great contribution not only in the production response but also in the nutri tional sanitary and immune condition of the farmed organisms Additionally the use and contribution of microorganisms associated to biofilms and bioflocs for the nutrition of farmed organisms have been also documented 24 64 66 Such practice may also decrease the dependence of fishmeal and fish oil however other strategies such as the use of plant in gredients and the use of bio
7. farm that is pretended to be installed rather than monitoring the pollution that is already being caused by any farm constructed without con sidering its environmental impact b In addition there is a great heterogeneity regarding policies and legislation of aquaculture impacts among different countries while some developed countries have complete and concrete legislation for aquaculture in order to avoid environmental impacts others have weak policies that do not protect their environment from aquaculture wastes under such scenario ecological imbalances and disasters have been caused with some of them being irreversible Herein Smith et al asserted that some developing countries often lack the institutions necessary to pre vent deleterious ecosystem impacts of seafood pro duction and to sustain trade benefits 6 they also argued that the developed countries have a history of these problems as well but with less obvious con sequences In the same report the authors revealed that with base in the World Bank indicators more than 60 of the countries had inefficient governance regarding the regulation of aquaculture and fisheries activities a possible cause of such result is related to corruption and regulatory quality Thus it is abso lutely essential for the future of aquaculture that the governments and the producers be attuned with each other to reach agreements that resolve the problems of this activity c
8. 55 1 production a 35 30 25 20 amp qs 10 5 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 World population Aquaculture production b FIGURE 1 Growth behavior of world population and aquaculture production during the last six years a illustrates the total world population by year billions and the total production of aquatic organisms by aquaculture million tonnes b compares the per centage of annual increase of world population and aquaculture production considering year 2004 as the basepoint Data obtained from FAO Report 2010 World Review of Fisheries and Aquaculture Aquaculture Is an Essential Activity for World s Welfare Aqu aculture is considered as a double edged sword because it has not only tremendous benefits for the humanity but also great repercussions to the environment Considering the benefits seafood produced by fisheries and aquaculture con tributes with 15 to 20 of average animal protein consump tion to 2 9 billion people worldwide 6 without considering the contribution of freshwater or brackish water species The nutritional quality of aquatic products has a high standard and represents an important source of macro and micronu trients for people from developing countries 7 Addition ally aquaculture and fisheries are recognized as a source of employment for instance near to 43 5 million people were employed in 2006 and 520 million people relied on income from seaf
9. Aquaculture Farms 4 10 11 The man grove forests are important ecosystems considered as the main source of organic matter to the coastal zone 12 13 they are also nursery areas for many aquatic species ecologi cally and or economically important as well as refuge or nesting areas for bird reptiles crustaceans and other taxo nomic groups 14 Mangroves are additionally accumula tion sites for sediments contaminants nitrogen carbon and offer protection against coastal erosion 15 According to environmentalists 16 mangroves support diverse local fisheries and also provide critical nursery habitat and marine productivity which support wider commercial fisheries These forests also provide valuable ecosystem services that benefit coastal communities including coastal land stabiliza tion and storm protection The cover of mangrove forest has decreased worldwide from 19 8 million hectares in 1980 to less than 15 millions in 2000 The annual deforestation rate was 1 7 from 1980 to 1990 and 1 0 from 1990 to 2000 17 and the problem continues up today Some authors have documented that aquaculture has been responsible for the deforestation of millions hectares of mangrove forest in Thailand Indonesia Ecuador Madagascar and other countries 18 19 From 1975 to 1993 the construction of shrimp farms in Thailand diminished the mangrove cover from 312 700 to 168 683 ha 20 Philippines has reconverted 205 523 ha of mangrove an
10. Finally contrasting actions have been observed by governmental instances while some instances try to protect the environment and achieve a sustainable aquaculture others have directly or indirectly sup ported the unsustainable aquacultural practices for instance according to a recent report 16 the con version of mangroves to aquaculture ponds has been fuelled by governmental support private sector in vestment and external assistance from multilateral development agencies such as the World Bank and Asian Development Bank 83 84 In conclusion aquaculture is a possible panacea but at present is also responsible for diverse problems related with the environmental sanity however the new strategies pro posed during the last decade have proven that it is possible The Scientific World Journal to reach a sustainable aquaculture but such strategies should be supported and proclaimed by the different federal envi ronmental agencies from all countries Only under such scenario aquaculture will be a sustainable practice The im plementation of the different alternatives stated above would depend on particular circumstances of any farm Fortunately there are reports of some aquaculture farms along the world on sustainable practices References 1 L Luchini and S Pann Huidobro Perspectivas en Acuicultura Nivel Mundial Regional y Local Direcci n de Acuicultura Subsecretar a de Pesca y Acuicultura Buenos A res Ar
11. Lewis Declining wild salmon populations in relation to parasites from farm salmon Science vol 318 no 5857 pp 1772 1775 2007 A B A Boxall The environmental side effects of medica tion EMBO Reports vol 5 no 12 pp 1110 1116 2004 C A Berlanga Robles and A Ruiz Luna Assessment of land scape changes and their effects on the San Blas estuarine sys tem Nayarit Mexico through Landsat imagery analysis Ciencias Marinas vol 32 no 3 pp 523 538 2006 F P ez Osuna The environmental impact of shrimp aqua culture a global perspective Environmental Pollution vol 112 no 2 pp 229 231 2001 S C Johnson R B Blaylock J Elphick and K D Hyatt Dis ease induced by the sea louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis Co pepoda Caligidae in wild sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka stocks of Alberni Inlet British Columbia Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences vol 53 no 12 pp 2888 2897 1996 G M Kruzynski Cadmium in oysters and scallops the BC experience Toxicology Letters vol 148 no 3 pp 159 169 2004 C E Boyd Guidelines for aquaculture effluent management at the farm level Aquaculture vol 226 no 1 4 pp 101 112 2003 P Read and T Fernandes Management of environmental im pacts of marine aquaculture in Europe Aquaculture vol 226 no 1 4 pp 139 163 2003 F J Magall n Barajas A Arreola G Portillo Clark et al Ca
12. The Scientific World Journal Volume 2012 Article ID 389623 9 pages doi 10 1100 2012 389623 Review Article The fcientificWorld JOURNAL World Aquaculture Environmental Impacts and Troubleshooting Alternatives Marcel Martinez Porchas and Luis R Martinez Cordova Departamento de Tecnolog a de Alimentos de Origen Animal Centro de Investigaci n en Alimentaci n y Desarrollo Km 0 7 Carretera La Victoria Hermosillo SON Mexico Departamento de Investigaciones Cient ficas y Tecnol gicas de la Universidad de Sonora Boulevard Luis Donaldo Colosio s n 83000 Hermosillo SON Mexico Correspondence should be addressed to Luis R Martinez Cordova Imtz guaymas uson mx Received 8 October 2011 Accepted 16 November 2011 Academic Editors E Gilman and J Kotta Copyright 2012 M Martinez Porchas and L R Martinez Cordova This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited Aquaculture has been considered as an option to cope with the world food demand However criticisms have arisen around aquaculture most of them related to the destruction of ecosystems such as mangrove forest to construct aquaculture farms as well as the environmental impacts of the effluents on the receiving ecosystems The inherent benefits of aquaculture such as massive food production and econo
13. bial protein production in activated suspension tanks manipulating C N ratio in feed and the implications for fish culture Bioresource Technology vol 99 no 9 pp 3590 3599 2008 E L C Ballester P C Abreu R O Cavalli M Emerenciano L de Abreu and W Wasielesky Jr Effect of practical diets with different protein levels on the performance of Farfantepenaeus paulensis juveniles nursed in a zero exchange suspended microbial flocs intensive system Aquaculture Nutrition vol 16 no 2 pp 163 172 2010 M J Becerra Dorame L R Mart nez C rdova P Martinez Porchas and J A L pez El as Evaluation of zero water ex change autotrophic and heterotrophic microcosm based sys tems on the production response of Litopenaeus vannamei in tensively nursed without Artemia Israeli Journal of Aquacul ture Bamidgeh vol 63 pp 1 7 2011 L Stumpf N S Calvo F C Diaz W C Valenti and L S L Greco Effect of intermittent feeding on growth in early ju veniles of the crayfish Cherax quadricarinatus Aquaculture vol 319 no 1 2 pp 98 104 2011 R C Summerfelt and C R Penne Septic tank treatment of the effluent from a small scale commercial recycle aquaculture system North American Journal of Aquaculture vol 69 no 1 pp 59 68 2007 C P Balasubramanian S M Pillai and P Ravichandran Zero water exchange shrimp farming systems extensive in the periphery of Chilka lagoon Orissa
14. d and K C Williams The fate of nitrogenous waste from shrimp feeding Aquaculture vol 198 no 1 2 pp 79 93 2001 28 A G J Tacon and I P Forster Aquafeeds and the environ ment policy implications Aquaculture vol 226 no 1 4 pp 181 189 2003 Y Y Feng L C Hou N X Ping T D Ling and C I Kyo Development of mariculture and its impacts in Chinese coas tal waters Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries vol 14 no 1 pp 1 10 2004 30 A Gyllenhammar and L H kanson Environmental conse quence analyses of fish farm emissions related to different scales and exemplified by data from the Baltic a review Marine Environmental Research vol 60 no 2 pp 211 243 2005 31 C Jackson N Preston P J Thompson and M Burford Nitrogen budget and effluent nitrogen components at an in tensive shrimp farm Aquaculture vol 218 no 1 4 pp 397 411 2003 32 O Schneider V Sereti E H Eding and J A J Verreth Anal ysis of nutrient flows in integrated intensive aquaculture sys tems Aquacultural Engineering vol 32 no 3 4 pp 379 401 2005 33 R Alonso Rodr guez and F P ez Osuna Nutrients phyto plankton and harmful algal blooms in shrimp ponds a review with special reference to the situation in the Gulf of Califor nia Aquaculture vol 219 no 1 4 pp 317 336 2003 34 L R Mart nez C rdova and F Enriquez Ocafia Stud
15. d wetlands into aquaculture farms Indonesia 211 000 ha Vietnam 102 000ha Bangladesh 65 000ha and Ecuador 21 600 ha 21 2 Salinization Acidification of Soils Aquaculture farms are sometimes abandoned by multiple problems operative economic sanitary and etc and the soil from those former farms remain hypersaline acid and eroded 22 Therefore those soils cannot be used for agricultural purposes and are The Scientific World Journal unusable for long periods In addition the application of lime and other chemicals used in aquaculture to treat the soil can also modify its physicochemical characteristics which could aggravate the problem 23 3 Pollution of Water for Human Consumption Although few studies have been conducted in relation with such topic there are some signs indicating that inland aquaculture has been responsible for the deterioration of water bodies used for human consumption 21 For instance preliminary cal culations revealed that an intensive aquaculture system farm ing three tons of freshwater fish can be compared in res pect to waste generation to a community of around 240 in habitants 24 Although most of the aquaculture farms produce marine species there is a growing sector of aquaculture farms pro ducing freshwater species which is a point of concern con sidering the above information 4 Eutrophication and Nitrification of Effluent Receiving Eco systems The eutrophication or or
16. each ton of shrimp harvested 28 The estimated mean FCR worldwide for shrimp aquaculture is 1 8 which means that for a world annual shrimp production around 5 million tons 5 5 million tons of organic matter 360 000 tons of nitrogen and 125 000 tons of phosphorous are annually discharged to the environment Unfortunately these data considers only shrimp production which represents around 896 of the total aquaculture production if we assume that the FCRs are similar for the other farmed organisms and the diet formulations have some similitude 36 the total discharge of wastes may be multiplied by 12 5 from a very preliminary perspective The nutrification is considered as the nutrient N P C enrichment of water column mainly due to fertilization mineralization of organic matter resuspension of sediments and excretion of organisms into the ponds The greatest concern in this aspect is the increasing production of nitrogenous metabolites especially ammonia which is highly toxic in its unionized form NH3 for many aquatic organisms 37 5 Ecological Impacts in Natural Ecosystems because of the Introduction of Exotic Species The negative impacts of the biological contamination for the introduction of exotic aquacultural species on the native populations have been well documented 18 38 39 The main reported problems are the displacement of native species competition for space and food and pathogens spread To cite an exam
17. eininger C J Tucker D Juhn and F Hawkins Fifty years of deforestation and forest fragmenta tion in Madagascar Environmental Conservation vol 34 no 4 pp 325 333 2007 20 E Barbier and S Sathirathai Shrimp Farming and Mangrove Loss in Thailand Edward Elgar 2003 21 F PAez Osuna The environmental impact of shrimp aqua culture causes effects and mitigating alternatives Environ mental Management vol 28 no 1 pp 131 140 2001 22 J A Rodr guez Valencia D Crespo and M L pez Camacho La camaronicultura y la sustentabilidad del Golfo de Califor nia 2010 http www wwf org mx 23 L R Mart nez C rdova M Martinez Porchas and S Pedrin Avil s Selecci n de sitios construcci n y preparaci n de estanques in Camaronicultura Sustentable L R Mart nez C rdova Ed chapter I p 179 Trillas D F Mexico 2009 24 Y Avnimelech Biofloc Technology A Practical Guide Book The World Aquaculture Society Baton Rouge La USA 2009 25 S Focardi I Corsi and E Franchi Safety issues and sustain able development of European aquaculture new tools for en vironmentally sound aquaculture Aquaculture International vol 13 no 1 2 pp 3 17 2005 26 R Crab Y Avnimelech T Defoirdt P Bossier and W Ver straete Nitrogen removal techniques in aquaculture for a sus tainable production Aquaculture vol 270 no 1 4 pp 1 14 2007 27 M A Burfor
18. essible food for popu lation and the generation of millions of jobs and billion doll ars in budget for the developing countries the activity is one of the most criticized worldwide mainly because of the en vironmental impacts that have been and can be caused Thus the predominant and unavoidable question is could aqua culture be a truly sustainable activity Understanding sustainability as the ability to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs 3 many re searchers aquaculturists and governmental instances have considered that a sustainable aquaculture is possible but it depends on the way that the activity will be managed 4 Additionally other authors 5 have argued that the sustain ability of aquaculture not only requires neutral or benign ef fects on the environment but also economic feasibility The present paper is a review of the world aquaculture and its environmental impacts It analyzes the situation of aquaculture production up to date and summarizes the main problems faced by the activity as well as the strategies sug gested evaluated and proven to contribute to achieve a sus tainable activity 2 60 4 2 E E n g 2 59 65 8 S amp gt 40 F 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 ES World population 4 65 66 67 68 68 Aquaculture 41 9 44 3 474 49 9 52 5
19. flocflour have been tested and proposed to substitute at different rates the fish meal in formulated feeds 51 c The practice of subfeeding or intermittent feeding regimes is a strategy aimed to achieve average growth performances in aquatic organisms but supplying significantly lower amounts of formulated feed Such alternative takes advantage of the compensatory growth process of shrimp and crustaceans 67 6 The adequate management of effluents is indubitably one of the central aspects to consider for a sustainable aqua culture Diverse strategies have been proven or suggested to minimize the environmental impacts of effluents The most promising are settling lagoons 34 treatments with septic tanks 68 the implementation of systems with low or zero water exchange 69 the utilization of recirculation systems 70 71 the use of mangrove forests as sinks for nutrients organic matter and contaminants 72 the polyculture or in tegrated multitrophic aquaculture systems 55 73 and the bioremediation 54 74 a It is considered as bioremediation the use of individ ual or combined organisms including animal vege tal and bacteria to minimize the contaminating charge of effluents from any activity including aqua culture This practice takes advantage of the natural or modified abilities of those organisms to reduce and or transform waste products 75 b There are different ways to conduct bioremediation
20. ganic enrichment of water column is mainly produced by nonconsumed feed especially due to overfeeding lixiviation of aquaculture feedstuffs 25 26 decomposition of died organisms and overfertilization 27 30 It is well documented that from the total nitrogen supplemented to the cultured organisms only 20 to 50 is retained as biomass by the farmed organisms while the rest is incorporated into the water column or sediment 31 32 and eventually discharged in the effluents toward the receiv ing ecosystems causing diverse impacts such as phytoplank ton blooms sometimes of toxic microalgaes such as red tides 33 burring and death of benthic organisms as well as undesirable odors and the presence of pathogens in the discharge sites 34 The impact may be more or less severe depending on some factors such as the intensification of the system density of organisms which is directly related to the amount of feed supplied 26 35 The feed conversion ratio FCR is a well indicator of the effectiveness of feeding and consequently of the retention of nitrogen and carbon as biomass ofthe farmed organisms For instance farms cultur ing the tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon usually report FCRs ranging from 1 to more than 2 5 such huge difference is later reflected in the amount of organic matter nitrogen and phosphorous discharged in the effluents which may range from 500 to 1625 kg 26 to 117 kg and 13 to 38 kg respec tively for
21. gentina 2008 2 FAO World Review of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2010 3 World Commission on the Environment and Development WCED Our Common Future Oxford University Press New York NY USA 1987 4 R R Stickney and J P McVey Responsible Marine Aquaculture World Aquaculture Society New York NY USA 2002 5 K Barrington N Ridler T Chopin S Robinson and B Robinson Social aspects of the sustainability of integrated multi trophic aquaculture Aquaculture International vol 18 no 2 pp 201 211 2010 6 M D Smith C A Roheim L B Crowder et al Sustainability and global seafood Science vol 327 no 5967 pp 784 786 2010 7 N Roos M A Wahab C Chamnan and S H Thilsted The role of fish in food based strategies to combat vitamin A and mineral deficiencies in developing countries Journal of Nutri tion vol 137 no 4 pp 1106 1109 2007 8 FAO The State of the World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2008 FAO Rome Italy 2009 9 A Frankic and C Hershner Sustainable aquaculture devel oping the promise of aquaculture Aquaculture International vol 11 no 6 pp 517 530 2003 10 B R DeWalt J R Ramirez Zavala L Noriega and E Gon z lez Shrimp aquaculture the people and the environment in coastal Mexico Tech Rep World Bank NACA WWE y FAO Consortium Program on Shrimp Farming and the En vironment 2002 K Rajitha C K Mukherjee
22. igher than those required thus af fecting not only the price of the feed but also increas ing the pollution potential considering that protein catabolism produces ammonium nitrogen as the main metabolite Regarding nutrient quality it is im portant to use ingredients with high digestibility the low digestibility of ingredients protein lipid carbo hydrate is partially the responsible for a low reten tion of those nutrients in the farmed organisms and their increase in the water column and sediment aug menting the polluting potential 58 b Higher hydrostability One of the most important causes of nutrient losses of aquafeeds is the low hydrostability which provoke fast disintegration and lixiviation decreasing the nutrient incorporation ef ficiency by the farmed organisms and increasing the concentration in the water column Fishes are faster swimmers and can consume a formulated feed within minutes but crustaceans are usually less active and can consume the formulated feed within minutes or even hours The hydrostability of feedstuffs can be improved by incorporation of effective binders and or for the use of special fabrication processes 59 c Better attractability and palatability It is necessary to produce feeds which can be consumed as soon as possible to avoid nutrient losses This is possible with the incorporation of effective attractants and improv ing the palatability with ingredients such as fish oils
23. mical profits have led the scientific community to seek for diverse strategies to minimize the negative impacts rather than just prohibiting the activity Aquaculture is a possible panacea but at present is also responsible for diverse problems related with the environmental health however the new strategies proposed during the last decade have proven that it is possible to achieve a sustainable aquaculture but such strategies should be supported and proclaimed by the different federal environmental agencies from all countries Additionally there is an urgent need to improve legislation and regulation for aquaculture Only under such scenario aquaculture will be a sustainable practice 1 Introduction Aquaculture the farming of aquatic organisms has been the agroindustrial activity with the highest growth rate world wide in the last four decades From 1970 to 2008 the produc tion of aquaculture organisms grew at a rate of 8 3 per year compared to less than 2 of fisheries and 2 9 of livestock 1 The annual aquaculture production is at present over 60 million tons including marine plants with an approximate value of 85 billion dollars 2 The last FAO report revealed that the world population increased by 6 3 from 2004 to 2009 whereas the production of aquatic organisms by aqua culture increased by 31 5 in the same period Figure 1 2 Despite the undeniable benefits of aquaculture such as the provision of good quality and acc
24. micals antibiotics algaecides parasiticides and etc which also contribute to increasing the pollu tion 50 The most adequate intensity depends on the land and water availability as well as the carrying capacity of the water body or terrestrial ecosystems which will receive the effluents However recalculat ing and zero water exchange systems can elimi nate the environmental impact while maintaining extremely high densities of aquatic organisms Pro mising results have been achieved in the culture of fish and crustaceans using biofloc systems with zero water exchange 51 The Scientific World Journal c An adequate design of the water inlet and outlet systems considering the water quality weather con ditions marine currents and tide patterns for sea water and hydrological patterns for continental waters 52 The modifications of oceanic currents patterns may have implications on the sediment transport and consequently on the beaches confor mation d The possibility of farming simultaneously two or more species polycultures or integrated multitrophic aquaculture IMTA This strategy has proven to be one of the most effective ways to recuperate the car bon nitrogen and phosphorous supplied to the sys tem as biomass of the farmed organisms and to dimi nish the environmental impacts caused by the efflu ents 53 55 Polyculture is commonly referred to or ganisms of the same environment marine brackish w
25. n A qualitative assess ment of standards and certification schemes applicable to aqua culture in the Asia Pacific region RAP Publication 2007 25 Food and Agriculture Organization for the United Nations Regional Office for the Asia and the Pacific Bangkok Thailand 2007 S E Siddall J A Atchue II and P L Murray Jr Mariculture development in mangroves a case study of the Philippines Panama and Ecuador in Coastal Resources Management De velopment Case Studies Renewable Resources Information Ser ies Coastal Management J R Clark Ed National Park Ser vice U S Dept of the Interior and the U S Agency for In ternational Development Research Planning Institute Col umbia SC USA 1985 W J M Verheugt A Purwoko F Danielsen H Skov and R Kadarisman Integrating mangrove and swamp forests con servation with coastal lowland development the Banyuasin Sembilang swamps case study South Sumatra Province In donesia Landscape and Urban Planning vol 20 no 1 3 pp 85 94 199 Journal of p 4 Journal of Waste Management Environmental and Public Health The Scientific World Journal International Journal of Oceanography pore p Hindawi Submit your manuscripts at http www hindawi com International Journal of pheric Sciences Applied amp International Journal of Journal of International Journal of Environmental Journal of Biodiversity Geological Re
26. obster juveniles Jasus edwardsii Aquaculture vol 296 no 3 4 pp 329 336 2009 T Ho Feed attractants for juvenile Chinook salmon Oncorhyn chus tshawytscha prepared from hydrolisates of Pacific hake Merluccius productus M S thesis University of British Colu mbia 2009 L R Mart nez C rdova and M A Porchas Cornejo Manejo del alimento y la alimentaci n en estanques camaron colas una estrategia de acuicultura sustentable in Camaronicultura Sustentable L R Mart nez C rdova Ed chapter II p 176 Trillas D F Mexico 2009 A Campa ia Torres L R Mart nez C rdova H Villarreal Colmenares and E Cort s Jacinto Evaluation of different concentrations of adult live Artemia Artemia franciscana Kel logs 1906 as natural exogenous feed on the water quality and production parameters of Litopenaeus vannamei Boone 1931 pre grown intensively Aquaculture Research vol 42 no 1 pp 40 46 2010 M A Porchas Cornejo L R Mart nez C rdova L Ramos Trujillo J Hern ndez L pez M Mart nez Porchas and F Mendoza Cano Effect of promoted natural feed on the pro duction nutritional and immunological parameters of Lito penaeus vannamei Boone 1931 semi intensively farmed Aquaculture Nutrition vol 17 no 2 pp e622 e628 2011 The Scientific World Journal 64 66 67 68 73 74 75 76 77 M E Azim D C Little and J E Bron Micro
27. of shrimp postlarvae farmed four to seven millions of other organisms are killed by trapping in the nets of farms inlet 18 43 9 Negative Effect on Fisheries Although aquaculture has been proclaimed as a solution to avoid overfishing it has contributed in more or less proportion to the fisheries coll apse Fishermen who work in places near to aquaculture farms argue that the contamination produced by farms has decreased the population of aquatic organisms and in conse quence their volume captures Additionally another problem of similar magnitude is the extremely high aquaculture s de pendence of fishmeal and fish oil which could be another nonsustainable practice in aquaculture The proportion of fishmeal supplies used for fish production have increased from 1096 in 1988 to more than 3096 in the last years which classifies aquaculture as a potential promoter of the collapse of fisheries stocks worldwide 24 10 Some Other Accusations Some other accusations for aquaculture include the production of fish and shellfish with high concentrations of toxins and or heavy metals genetic pollution and infestation of nondesirable phytoplankton and or zooplankton species 44 47 11 In Its Role as Food Producer Aquaculture Is Far from Complying an Adequate Distribution of Food Overlaying net exports governance and undernourishment suggest that seafood s contribution as a source of protein and livelihood is precarious 6 More
28. ood production 6 8 Aquaculture products have also high trade potential as food commodities in the international market fish and shell fish exports from developing countries have a greater value than the combination of important products such as coffee tea tobacco meat cocoa rubber and rice 6 8 In many The Scientific World Journal cases the incomes generated by aquaculture exceed those from other agricultural activities due to the high price market that some products can achieve and due to the most effective bioenergetics of some aquatic species However des pite all these benefits aquaculture is actually not considered a sustainable activity in the perception of the scientific com munity and the average population 2 Why Aquaculture Is Considered a Nonsustainable Activity With or without valid arguments aquaculture has been ac cused to be the cause of many environmental social eco nomic and inclusively esthetic problems Ecosystems are not always as fragile as could be considered instead they have remarkable capacity of resiliency and as long as basic pro cesses are not irretrievably upset ecosystems will continue to recycle and distribute energy 9 However irreversible dam ages have been already caused due to inadequate manage ment of the activity The main negative impacts attributed to the activity are as follows 1 Destruction of Natural Ecosystems In Particular Mangrove Forests to Construct
29. orchas Bioremediation and reuse of shrimp aquaculture effluents to farm whiteleg shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei a first approach Aquaculture Research vol 42 no 10 pp 1415 1423 2011 M Mart nez Porchas L R Mart nez C rdova M A Porchas Cornejo and J A L pez El as Shrimp polyculture a poten tially profitable sustainable but uncommon aquacultural practice Reviews in Aquaculture vol 2 no 2 pp 73 85 2010 A Sapkota A R Sapkota M Kucharski et al Aquaculture practices and potential human health risks current knowledge and future priorities Environment International vol 34 no 8 pp 1215 1226 2008 L Mart nez C rdova M Porchas and H Villarreal Efecto de tres diferentes estrategias de alimentaci n sobre el fito plancton zooplancton y bentos en estanques de cultivo de camar n caf penaeus californiens holmes 1900 Ciencias Marinas vol 24 no 3 pp 267 281 1998 L E Cruz Su rez M Nieto L pez C Guajardo Barbosa M Tapia Salazar U Scholz and D Ricque Marie Replacement of fish meal with poultry by product meal in practical diets for Litopenaeus vannamei and digestibility of the tested ingredients and diets Aquaculture vol 272 no 1 4 pp 466 476 2007 C J Simon The effect of carbohydrate source inclusion level of gelatinised starch feed binder and fishmeal particle size on the apparent digestibility of formulated diets for spiny l
30. over it has been revealed that some countries with undernourishment and weak governance usu ally play a role as baler of seafood from countries well nour ished and with strong economic capacity 6 For these above reasons remains a generalized perception that the sustainability of aquaculture is at present being threatened or in some cases far from being reached 3 What to Do for a Sustainable Aquaculture Many strategies have been suggested evaluated and or pro ven in order to advance in the sustainability of aquaculture Basically all of them respond to the criticisms and are possi ble solutions to the problems attributed to the activity The main aspects that have to be performed to advance toward such goal are the correct selection of the farming sites and species the implementation of the most adequate culture system use of the best feed and feeding practices the use of bioremediation systems decreasing the dependence of fish meal and fish oil adequate management of the effluents achieving certification of compliance with sustainability im proving research and legislation related to evaluation and solutions for aquaculture impacts 1 In the context of the site selection it is necessary to consider the following a The vocation of the selected site It would be absurd to select a site for aquaculture purposes if it is excel lent for agriculture or livestock Unfortunately this is the case in many regions of the
31. pacidad de carga y capacidad ambiental en la camaroni cultura in Camaronicultura Sustentable L M C rdova Ed pp 37 80 Trillas D E Mexico 2009 L R Mart nez C rdova M M Porchas and E Cort s Jaci nto Camaronicultura mexicana y mundial Actividad susten table o industria contaminante Revista Internacional de Con taminacion Ambiental vol 25 no 3 pp 181 196 2009 M J Costello A Grant I M Davies et al The control of chemicals used in aquaculture in Europe Journal of Applied Ichthyology vol 17 no 4 pp 173 180 2001 M Emerenciano E L C Ballester R O Cavalli and W Wasielesky Biofloc technology application as a food source in a limited water exchange nursery system for pink shrimp The Scientific World Journal Farfantepenaeus brasiliensis Latreille 1817 Aquaculture Research In press C E Boyd J A Hargreaves and J W Clay Codes of conduct for marine shrimp aquaculture in The New Wave Proceedings of Special Session on Sustainable Shrimp Culture Aquaculture L C Browdy and D E Jory Eds pp 303 321 The World Aquaculture Society Baton Rouge La USA 2001 T Chopin A H Buschmann C Halling et al Integrating seaweeds into marine aquaculture systems a key toward sus tainability Journal of Phycology vol 37 no 6 pp 975 986 2001 L R Mart nez C rdova J A Lopez Elias G Leyva Miranda L Armenta Ay n and M Martinez P
32. ple recent re ports have revealed a parasite transmission of sea lice from captive to wild salmon 40 The authors of such study have hypothesized that if outbreaks continue then local extinc tion is certain and a 9996 collapse in pink salmon abundance is expected in four salmon generations 6 Ecological Impacts Caused by Inadequate Medication Prac tices Farmers usually expose their cultured organisms to medication regimes for different purposes such as avoiding disease outbreaks and improving growth performance How ever monitoring studies have detected low or high levels of a wide range of pharmaceuticals including hormones ster oids antibiotics and parasiticides in soils surface waters and groundwaters 41 These chemicals have caused imbal ances in the different ecosystems In particular the use of hormones in aquaculture and its environmental implications have been scarcely studied 7 Changes on Landscape and Hydrological Patterns The agricultural and aquacultural activities have contributed to the degradation of ecosystems including important modifi cation on landscape 10 18 22 42 The construction of shrimp farms in the river beds has modified the hydrological patterns in many regions of the world with the consequent impacts on the regional ecosystems and the local weather 8 Trapping and Killing of Eggs Larvae Juveniles and Adults of Diverse Organisms It has been estimated that for each million
33. quaculture or to compare the standards established by the different agencies and check if the practices of any farm cope with those standards The cer tification of aquaculture is performed by the International Standards Organization ISO the WTO Technical Barriers to Trade TBT the FAO Guidelines for the Ecolabelling of Fish and Fishery Products from Marine Capture Fisheries and the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia Pacific NACA and others 82 According to the FAO criterion 82 certification is a procedure through which written or equivalent assurance states that a product process or service conforms to speci fied requirements Within the aquaculture sector certifica tion can be applied to a process followed by a production The Scientific World Journal unit pond cage farm processing plant a specific product or commodity or to the inputs being applied to the system before or during production 8 Finally there is an unavoidable need to improve research and legislation regarding evaluation and solutions for aquaculture impacts a One of the reasons of the severe environmental im pacts of aquaculture is that scientific research in some developing countries is firstly focused on increasing biomass production improvement of formulated feeds production systems genetically improved or ganisms etc and later on the environmental im pacts however it is desirable to evaluate the potential impacts of any
34. search Soil Science Climatology Ww Advances in Advances in Environmental Meteorology Chemistry
35. ts and nutritional requirements tolerance to environmental parameters and etc c It is important to select organisms with a good market and price when farmed for commercial pur poses 3 Regarding implementation of the best culture system the main aspects to consider include the following a The type and size of farming structure 49 Depend ing on the species intensity land and water avail ability and economic investment it is possible to use different types of farming structures for the culture of the same species or group Some of them are more adequate and sustainable For the case of shrimp farming for instance it has been suggested that floating or submerged cages could have a lower im pact on the environment than earthen ponds The same suggestion is applicable for culture of fishes or mollusks Regarding size of production units small ponds or farming structure is easier to manage in aspects such as feeding monitoring cleaning pond bottom management and harvesting Such consider ations usually lead to lower environmental impacts b Intensity The stocking density and the consequent biomass harvested are absolutely related to the sus tainability of aquaculture The increase of the inten sity implies an increase in the supplemental feed and in consequence in the organic matter nitrogen and phosphorous in the effluents Additionally intensive or super intensive systems require the use of diverse che
36. world where agri cultural lands have been reconverted to aquaculture farms The vocation of a selected site is determined for many aspects which can change from region to region such as physical and chemical soil character istics water availability soil fertility topography wild vegetal and animal communities proximity to cities towns tourism zones and so forth priorities of the region or country food fuels tourism budget aqua culture budget and etc b The carrying capacity of the water bodies from the sites considered to supply the farms or used as efflu ent discharge places It is very important to evaluate how much water can be taken from a particular water body or how much effluents it can receive without important alterations on its ecological equilibrium The Scientific World Journal 48 The use of advanced technologies such as re mote sensing could be an excellent auxiliary in this field 11 2 For the selection of species it is crucial to consider the following a Itis always better to select native instead of exotic spe cies The introduction of exotic species causes many and diverse problems as mentioned in the previous section Additionally the obtaining and maintenance of broodstock of exotic species could be difficult and expensive b It is necessary to have the most possible knowledge about the biology and ecology of the organism that is pretended to be farmed life cycle feeding habi
37. y of the benthic fauna in a discharge lagoon of a shrimp faro with special emphasis on polychaeta Journal of Biological Sciences vol 7 pp 12 17 2007 29 35 37 41 42 45 46 47 48 L Deutsch S Gr slund C Folke et al Feeding aquaculture growth through globalization exploitation of marine ecosys tems for fishmeal Global Environmental Change vol 17 no 2 pp 238 249 2007 E A H Priya and S J Davies Growth and feed conversion ratio of juvenile Oreochromis niloticus fed with replacement of fishmeal diets by animal by products Indian Journal of Fish eries vol 54 pp 51 58 2007 R Casillas Hernandez H Nolasco Soria T Garcia Galano O Carrillo Farnes and F P ez Osuna Water quality chemical fluxes and production in semi intensive Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei culture ponds utilizing two different feeding strategies Aquacultural Engineering vol 36 no 2 pp 105 114 2007 H A Gonz lez Ocampo L F Beltr n Morales C C ceres Mart nez et al Shrimp aquaculture environmental diagnosis in the semiarid coastal zone in Mexico Fresenius Environmen tal Bulletin vol 15 no 7 pp 659 669 2006 W L Shelton and S Rothbard Exotic species in global aqua culture a review Israeli Journal of Aquaculture Bamidgeh vol 58 no 1 pp 3 28 2006 M Krkosek J S Ford A Morton S Lele R A Myers and M A
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