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User Manual - v3.1 M16 C Compiler

1. Operand Description symbol A symbolic name as described in section 4 5 Symbol Names Symbols can also occur in expressions register Any valid data register RO ROH ROL R1 R1H RiL R2 R3 address register AO A1 frame base register FB static base register SB control register PC INTB USP ISP FLG or special function register For some instruction you can use a register pair R2RO R3R1 A1A0 expression Any valid expression as described in the section 4 6 Assembly Expressions address A combination of expression register and symbol 4 5 4 6 User s Manual The M16C assembly language has several addressing modes These described in detail in the M16C Series Software Manual Renesas 4 5 SYMBOL NAMES User defined symbols A user defined symbol can consist of letters digits and underscore characters _ The first character cannot be a digit The size of an identifier is only limited by the amount of available memory The case of these characters is significant You can define a symbol by means of a label declaration or an equate or set directive Labels Symbols used for memory locations are referred to as labels Reserved symbols Register names and names of assembler directives and controls are reserved for the system so you cannot use these for user defined symbols The case of these built in symbols is insignificant Examples CON1 EQU 3H The symbol CON1 represen
2. l ini size ds battery backup invok 2 2 End of section sect size db db db db db This application has bat _INI DA type object __l ini 44 84 104 105 99 97 116 32 98 101 101 107 101 100 32 101 115 10 0 been 115 105 32 111 110 37 97 110 32 100 112 32 105 32 Module end 112 104 110 116 User s Manual 108 97 118 105 invoked d times n 105 115 111 109 Using the Linker 8 33 Section placement The number of invocations of the example program should be saved in non volatile battery back upped memory This is the memory my_nvram from the example in the previous section To control the locating of sections you need to write one or more section definitions in the LSL file At least one for each address space where you want to change the default behavior of the linker In our example we need to locate sections in the address space near section layout near To locate sections you must create a group in which you select sections from your program For the battery back up example we need to define one group which contains the section non_volatile CLR DA All other sections are located using the defaults specified in the architecture definition Section non_volatile CLR_ DA should be placed in non volatile ram To achieve this the run address refers to our non volatile memory called my_nvram
3. Model Data Constants Pointers Small __ near in first 64 kB __hear __hear Medium __ hear in first 64 KB __paged __paged Large __ far anywhere in 1 MB _ far _ far Table 3 3 cm16c memory models When you compile for the R8C tiny compiler option r8c only the small model is allowed Using predefined macro _ MODEL __ to write conditional code With the predefined macro _ MODEL __ you can write conditional C code in one source for different memory models Depending on the memory model for which you compile the macro _ MODEL _ expands to s small memory model m _ medium memory model y large memory model Example if _ MODEL l this part is only for the large memory model endif 3 20 User s Manual 3 6 USING ASSEMBLY IN THE C SOURCE _ asm With the __ asm keyword you can use assembly instructions in the C source and pass C variables as operands to the assembly code Be aware that C modules that contain assembly are not portable and harder to compile in other environments Furthermore assembly blocks are not interpreted by the compiler they are regarded as a black box So it is your responsibility to make sure that the assembly block is syntactically correct General syntax of the __asm keyword _ asm instruction template output param list instruction_template parm_nr regnum output _param_list input_param_list amp constraint _char
4. __interrupt_fixed vector Both function qualifiers takes vector as an argument which identifies the interrupt number entry in the interrupt vector table This number must be in the range 0 to 63 for _ interrupt or 0 to 8 for __ interrupt fixed Interrupt functions cannot accept arguments and do not return anything For the relocatable vector table use _ interrupt vector void isr void Ehun For the fixed vector table use _ interrupt fixed vector void isr void L 3 When you define an interupt service routine the compiler generates the appropriate interrupt vector consisting of an instruction jumping to the interrupt function You can suppress this with the compiler option novector or the pragma novector The difference between a normal function and an interrupt function is that an interrupt function ends with a RETI instruction instead of a RET instruction and that all registers that might possibly be corrupted during the execution of the interrupt function are saved on function entry this is called the interrupt frame and restored on function exit 3 40 User s Manual Example The next example illustrates the function definition for a function for a software interrupt with vector number 0x30 in the relocatable vector table int c void _ interrupt 0x30 transmit void c 1 d gt Compiler option novector Do not generate interrupt vectors 3 12 6 2 REGISTER BANK SW
5. string symbol expression binary_operator expression _ unary_operalor expression expression function call All types of expressions are explained in separate sections 4 8 User s Manual 4 6 1 NUMERIC CONSTANTS Numeric constants can be used in expressions If there is no prefix the assembler assumes the number is a decimal number Base Description Example AR ar Oh a as 0B1101 Binary OB or 0b followed by binary digits 0 1 0b11001010 NY ar fy 0X12FF Hexadecimal e aig by a hexadecimal G5 ie a aaa a f 0x9abc Decimal z ae 12 integer Decimal digits 0 9 1245 6E10 Decimal Includes a decimal point or an E or e 6 floating point followed by the exponent 3 14 2 7e10 4 6 2 STRINGS ASCII characters enclosed in single or double quotes constitue an ASCII string Strings between double quotes allow symbol substitution by a DEFINE directive whereas strings between single quotes are always literal strings Both types of strings can contain escape characters Strings constants in expressions are evaluated to a number each character is replaced by its ASCII value Strings in expressions can have a size of up to a long word first 4 characters or less depending on the operand of an instruction or directive any subsequent characters in the string are ignored In this case the assembler issues a warning An exception to this rule is
6. Overview of assembler mode functions Function Description ODEF symbol symbol Returns 1 if symbol has been defined LST LIST control flag value 4 8 ASSEMBLER DIRECTIVES AND CONTROLS An assembler directive is simply a message to the assembler Assembler directives are not translated into machine instructions There are three main groups of assembler directives Assembler directives that tell the assembler how to go about translating instructions into machine code This is the most typical form of assembly directives Typically they tell the assembler where to put a program in memory what space to allocate for variables and allow you to initialize memory with data When the assembly source is assembled a location counter in the assembler keeps track of where the code and data is to go in memory The following directives fall under this group Assembly control directives Symbol definition directives Data definition Storage allocation directives Debug directives Directives that are interpreted by the macro preprocessor These directives tell the macro preprocessor how to manipulate your assembly code before it is actually being assembled You can use these directives to write macros and to write conditional source code Parts of the code that do not match the condition will not be assembled at all Some directives act as assembler options and most of them indeed do have an equivalent assembl
7. error invalid pointer buf 0 error writing to freed memory node_t node malloc sizeof node_t free node gt iteml error uninitialized memory free node OK free node gt item2 error deallocated memory 5 28 Ouput error error error error error error at at at at at at 000c240b 000c2415 000c241e 000c243b 000c245b 000c2491 User s Manual malloc buffer overflow address 00000e0e size 5 memory already freed address 00000e0e size 5 calling free with an invalid pointer 00000859 freed memory was modified address 00000e0e size 5 calling free with an invalid pointer aaaaaaaa calling free with an invalid pointer bbbbbbbb Example 4 Stack overflow C source void main void int Ouput error at 000c2ab2 bigsize int array bigsize 10000 stack overflow Calls abort stack overflow Example 5 Division by zero C source include lt stdio h gt int b 0 float f int main void f 10 b printf f f f return f Ouput error at 000c3ab5 division by zero PROFILING ail TASKING M diLdVHO C Language 6 3 6 1 WHAT IS PROFILING Profiling is a collection of methods to gather data about your application which helps you to identify code fragments where execution consumes the greatest amount of time TASKING supplies a number of profiler tools each dedi
8. Optimize instruction size option Os OS When this option is enabled the assembler tries to find the shortest possible operand encoding for instructions By default this option is enabled Using the Assembler 7 5 7 4 CALLING THE ASSEMBLER EDE uses a makefile to build your entire project You can set options specific for the assembler After you have built your project the output files of the assembling step are available in your project directory To assemble your program click either one of the following buttons Assembles the currently selected assembly file asm or src This results in a relocatable object file obj Builds your entire project but looks whether there are already files available that are needed in the building process If so these files will not be generated again which saves time Builds your entire project unconditionally All steps necessary to obtain the final e1f file are performed To only check for syntax errors click the following button GA Checks the currently selected assembly file for syntax errors but does not generate code Select a target processor core Because the toolchain supports several processor cores you need to choose a processor type first To access the M16C processor options 1 From the Project menu select Project Options The Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the Processor entry fill in the Processor Definition page and opti
9. message please report the error number and as many details as possible about the context in which the error occurred The following helps you to prepare an e mail using EDE 1 From the Help menu select Technical Support gt Prepare Email Tbe Prepare Email form appears 2 Fill out the the form State the error number and attach relevant files 3 Click the Copy to Email client button to open your email application A prepared e mail opens in your e mail application Using the Linker 8 39 4 Finish the e mail and send it Display detailed information on diagnostics 1 In the Help menu enable the option Show Help on Tool Errors 2 In the Build tab of the Output window double click on an error or warning message A description of tbe selected message appears EE lkml6c diag format all number d gt See linker option diag in section 4 3 Linker Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manudl 8 40 User s Manual USING THE UTILITIES ail TASKING M diLdVHO Using the Utilities 9 3 9 1 INTRODUCTION The TASKING toolchain for the M16C processor family comes with a number of utilities that provide useful extra features ccm16c A control program for the M16C toolchain The control program invokes all tools in the toolchain and lets you guickly generate an absolute object file from C source input files mkmi16c A utility program to maintain update a
10. 1 2 3 4 5 int list2 6 7 8 9 10 int main void char uninitl static char uninit2 sum listl 5 OK sum listl 6 overflow distance listl 1 list1 5 OK distance list1 1 list2 5 different objects inc uninitl uninitialized pointer inc uninit2 null pointer deref uninitl uninitialized pointer deref uninit2 null pointer return 0 Ouput error at 000c2283 access beyond end of object 00000600 0000060a error at 000c2294 pointer a008001a outside object 00000600 0000060a error at 000c22d3 comparing pointers to different objects 00000616 00000602 error at 000c22f1 subtracting pointers to different objects 00000616 00000602 error at 000c23d9 arithmetic on uninitialized pointer error at 000c23e0 arithmetic on null pointer error at 000c2356 dereferencing uninitialized pointer error at 000c2356 dereferencing null pointer Using the Compiler 5 27 Example 2 Unbandled case C source int sum int arr int n int total 0 for int i 0 i lt n itr total arr i return total Ouput error at 000c16b6 unhandled case Example 3 Malloc checks C source include lt stdlib h gt include lt string h gt typedef struct char iteml char item2 node_t int main void char buf malloc 5 strcpy buf hello error buffer too small free buf OK free buf error duplicate free free amp buf
11. B Strings and constants can be allocated in both ROM and RAM memory If allocated in RAM they have to be initialized from a copy in ROM during program startup So allocating in ROM saves both memory and time You can achieve this by enabling the options Keep strings in ROM and Keep constants in ROM on the Code Generation page of the C Compiler options Note that strings in ROM cannot be modified at run time Usual M16C hardware configurations have no ROM in the near space first 64k of memory So by default even with Keep strings in ROM and Keep constants in ROM enabled __ near qualified objects in those cases are allocated in RAM In case your hardware does have ROM in the near space you should enable the option ROM is available in first 64k of memory on the Code Generation page of the C Compiler options Choosing a Memory Model The memory model determines the default memory space gualifier for objects It also determines which library must be linked library functions have no memory gualifiers in their prototypes In the small memory model all objects get the __ near qualifier implicitly In the arge memory model all objects get the __ far gualifier implicitly In the medium memory model all constants string literals and pointers get the __ paged qualifier implicitly while variables get the __ near gualifier Note that the medium memory model is specifically tailored to allocate constants and strings in ROM Constants ge
12. If the assembler generates errors or warnings these are reported in the list file just below the source line that caused the error or warning Using the Assembler 7 9 To generate a list file 1 From the Project menu select Project Options Tbe Project Options dialog appears 2 Expand the Assembler entry and select List File 3 In the List file generation box select Enable default list file generation or Custom list file generation options 4 If you selected Custom enable the options you want to include in the list file EDE generates a list file for each source file in your project A list file gets the same basename as the source file but with extension Ist Example on the command line The following command generates the list file test 1st asml6c l test src d gt See section 5 1 Assembler List File Format in Chapter List File Formats of the Reference Manual for an explanation of the format of the list file 7 7 ASSEMBLER ERROR MESSAGES The assembler produces error messages of the following types F Fatal errors After a fatal error the assembler immediately aborts the assembling process E Errors Errors are reported but the assembler continues assembling No output files are produced unless you have set the assembler option keep output files the resulting output file may be incomplete 7 10 User s Manual W Warnings Warning messages do not result into an erroneous assembly out
13. 8 22 User s Manual 1 When you re use an FPGA design for several board designs it may be practical to write a derivative definition for the FPGA design and include it in the project LSL file 2 When you want to use multiple cores of the same type you must instantiate the cores in a derivative definition since the linker automatically instantiates only a single core for an unused architecture Tbe processor definition The processor definition describes an instance of a derivative A processor definition is only needed in a multi processor embedded system It allows you to define multiple processors of the same type If for a derivative A no processor is defined in the LSL file the linker automatically creates a processor named A of derivative A This is why for single processor applications it is enough to specify the derivative in the LSL file for example with dm16c lsl Tbe memory and bus definitions optional Memory and bus definitions are used within the context of a derivative definition to specify internal memory and on chip buses In the context of a board specification the memory and bus definitions are used to define external off chip memory and buses Given the above definitions the linker can convert a logical address into an offset into an on chip or off chip memory device The board specification The processor definition and memory and bus definitions together form a board specification LSL provi
14. MA299 024 00 00 Doc ver 1 7 M16C v3 1 C Compiler Assembler Linker User s Manual A publication of Altium BV Documentation Department Copyright O 2002 2005 Altium BV All rights reserved Reproduction in whole or part is prohibited without the written consent of the copyright owner TASKING is a brand name of Altium Limited The following trademarks are acknowledged FLEXlm is a registered trademark of Macrovision Corporation Intel is a trademark of Intel Corporation Motorola is a registered trademark of Motorola Inc MS DOS and Windows are registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation SUN is a trademark of Sun Microsystems Inc UNIX is a registered trademark of X Open Company Ltd All other trademarks are property of their respective owners Data subject to alteration without notice http www tasking com http www altium com The information in this document bas been carefully reviewed and is believed to be accurate and reliable However Altium assumes no liabilities for inaccuracies in this document Furthermore the delivery of this information does not convey to the recipient any license to use or copy the software or documentation except as provided in an executed license agreement covering the software and documentation Altium reserves the right to change specifications embodied in this document without prior notice TABLE OF CONTENTS ail TASKING M SLNALNOD Table o
15. 2 Expand the Linker entry and select Map File 3 Select Generate a linker map file map 4 Optional Enable the options to include that information in the map file Example on the command line lkm16c Mtest map test obj With this command the list file test map is created d gt See section 5 2 Linker Map File Format in Chapter List File Formats of the Reference Manual for an explanation of the format of the map file 8 38 User s Manual 8 9 LINKER ERROR MESSAGES The linker produces error messages of the following types F Fatal errors After a fatal error the linker immediately aborts the link locate process E Errors Errors are reported but the linker continues linking and locating No output files are produced unless you have set the linker option keep output files W Warnings Warning messages do not result into an erroneous output file They are meant to draw your attention to assumptions of the linker for a situation which may not be correct You can control warnings in the Linker Diagnostics page of the Project Project Options menu linker option w I Information Verbose information messages do not indicate an error but tell something about a process or the state of the linker To see verbose information use the linker option v S System errors System errors occur when internal consistency checks fail and should never occur When you still receive the system error message S6
16. Declare section in section 3 3 Assembler Directives in Chapter Assembly Language of the Reference Manual Examples using explicit memory types __rom char text No smoking _ bita int array 10 4 The memory type gualifiers are treated like any other data type specifier such as unsigned This means the examples above can also be declared as 3 14 User s Manual char _ rom text No smoking int _ bita array 10 4 Pointers Pointers declarations can have two memory type gualifiers For example the pointer itself can reside in the bita space while pointing to a function that resides in the rom space For example __rom char _ bita p pointer residing in BITA pointing to ROM In this declaration pointer p is qualified with __ bita allocated in bit addressable RAM but points to a char which is gualified with __ rom allocated in ROM The memory type qualifier used to the left of the specifies the target memory of the pointer the memory type gualifier used to the right of the specifies the storage memory of the pointer The TASKING M16C C compiler recognizes two types of pointers pointers with a size of 2 bytes or 4 bytes in memory Pointers to__sfr _ bita are 13 bit pointers 2 bytes in memory and pointers to __ near are 16 bit pointers and can point only to locations in the lowest 64K bytes of memory Pointers to __ far and __ paged are 20 bit pointers 4 bytes in memory and can po
17. Locating Sections 8 30 8 6 8 The Processor Definition Using Multi Processor SYStEMS a gnawd Fu a dewey a wen dl Kea WRN Ad GB AA 8 34 8 7 Tinker Labels di suction gn eS mht yfed fnn x inating saline 8 35 8 8 Generating a Map File 0 eee 8 37 8 9 Linker Error Messages aea ade GY eee 8 38 USING THE UTILITIES 9 1 9 1 Introduction 0 0 6 FF a FE FFR AA 9 3 9 2 Control Program ee 9 4 921 Calling the Control Program eee ee 9 4 9 3 Make Utility sy nw dd OR ane YDA edad 9 9 9 3 1 Calling the Make Utility 00 0 0 aa 9 11 9 3 2 Writing a Makefile Fa 9 12 9 4 Archiver r I FRAD 9 23 9 4 1 Calling the Archiver FFF Fa 9 23 9 4 2 Examples yaa tA gy DAY BD DY ADY ED AUR 9 25 9 5 Flash Welty gt adu GY obs AUR belek ek EG LA O ydd 9 27 9 5 1 Calling the Flash Utility aaa 9 27 INDEX CONTENTS Table of Contents Manual Purpose and Structure XI MANUAL PURPOSE AND STRUCTURE The documentation explains and describes how to use the M16C toolchain to program an M16C MCU Windows Users You can use the tools either with the graphical Embedded Development Environment EDE or from the command line in a command prompt window Unix Users For UNIX the toolchain works the same as it works for the Windows command line Directory paths are specified in the Windows way with back slashes as in Neml6cXbin Simply replace the back slashes by forward slashes for
18. Report all warnings no option w Produce MISRA C report file Generate warnings instead of errors for advisory MISRA C rules Generate warnings instead of errors for reguired MISRA C rules MISRA C version Suppress all warnings w Suppress specific warnings wnum num Treat warnings as errors warnings as errors MISRA C MISRA C rules misrac 4all nr nr linker option misra c report misrac advisory warnings misrac reguired warnings misrac version year Miscellaneous Merge C source code with assembly in output file src Additional C Compiler options S options Table 5 3 Compiler options 5 14 User s Manual The following options are available on the command line and you can set them in EDE through the Additional C Compiler options field in the Miscellaneous page Description Command line Display invocation syntax Align all objects on an even address Maximum size of a match with code compaction default 200 Redirect diagnostic messages to a file Read options from file Always inline function calls Maximum size increment inlining in default 25 Maximum size for function to always inline default 10 Keep output file after errors Maximum call depth default infinite default 1 Send output to standard output Do not clear non initialized global variables Do not generate frame for interrupt han
19. The name of the current dependency file The name of the current target The names of dependents which are younger than the target The names of all dependents The lt and macros are normally used for implicit rules They may be unreliable when used within explicit target command lines All macros may be suffixed with F to specify the Filename components e g F F Likewise the macros lt and may be suffixed by D to specify the directory component amp The result of the macro is always without double quotes regardless of the original target having double guotes around it or not The result of using the suffix F Filename component or D Directory component is also always without double guotes regardless of the original contents having double guotes around it or not 9 20 Functions User s Manual A function not only expands but also performs a certain operation Functions syntactically look like macros but have embedded spaces in the macro name e g Mmatch argl arg2 arg3 Y All functions are built in and currently there are five of them match separate protect exist and nexist match separate protect The match function yields all arguments which match a certain suffix match obj prog obj sub obj mylib a yields prog obj sub obj The separate function concatenates its arguments using the first argument as the separator If the first argumen
20. __asm add w 1 2 n t mMov w 32 20 m result r a r b void main void a 3 b 4 add2 Generated assembly code _add2 mov w _b RO mov w _a R1 add w R1 RO mov w RO _result _main mov w 3 a mov w 4 _b jsr _add2 3 24 User s Manual Example 4 reserve registers Sometimes an instruction knocks out certain specific registers The most common example of this is a function call where the called function is allowed to do whatever it likes with some registers If this is the case you can list specific registers that get clobbered by an operation after the inputs Same as Example 3 but now register RO is a reserved register You can do this by adding a reserved register list R0 As you can see in the generated assembly code register RO is not used the first register used is R1 int a b result void add2 void __asm add w 1 2 n t mov w 2 30 m result r a r b RO Generated assembly code mov w _b R2 mov w _a R1 add w R1 R2 mov w R2 _result Example 5 input and output are the same If the input and output must be the same you must use a number constraint The following example inverts the value of the input variable ivar and returns this value to ovar Since the assembly instruction not w uses only one register the return value has to go in the same place as the input value To indicate that iv
21. libcls a Some functions require the floating point library Also includes the startup code libfps a Floating point library non trapping for each model libfpm a libfpl a libfpst a Floating point library trapping for each model libfpmt a Control program option fp trap libfplt a librts a Run time library for each model librtm a librtl a Table 8 4 Overview of M16C libraries Library to link Description libc a C library Some functions require the floating point library Also includes the startup code libcs a Single precision C library compiler option F Some functions require the floating point library Also includes the startup code libfp a Floating point library non trapping libfpt a Floating point library trapping Control program option fp trap librt a Run time library Table 8 5 Overview of R8C libraries Using the Linker 8 15 d gt For more information on these libraries see section 3 14 Libraries in Chapter C Language User library You can also create your own libraries Section 9 4 Archiver in Chapter Using the Utilities describes how you can use the archiver to create your own library with object modules To link user libraries specify their filenames on the command line 8 4 1 SPECIFYING LIBRARIES TO THE LINKER In EDE you can specify both system and user libraries Link a system library with EDE To specify to link the
22. map Ikm16c F error messages elk L relocatable linker object file eln i memory definition file mdf i i Intel Hex ELF DWARF 2 Motorola S record absolute object file absolute object file absolute object file hex elf Ss Figure 8 1 Linker This chapter first describes the linking process Then it describes how to call the linker and how to use its options An extensive list of all options and their descriptions is included in section 4 3 Linker Options of the Reference Manual To gain even more control over the link process you can write a script for the linker This chapter shortly describes the purpose and basic principles of the Linker Script Language LSL on the basis of an example A complete description of the LSL is included in Chapter 7 Linker Script Language of the Reference Manual The end of the chapter describes how to generate a map file and contains an overview of the different types of messages of the linker 8 4 User s Manual 8 2 LINKING PROCESS The linker combines and transforms relocatable object files obj into a single absolute object file This process consists of two phases the linking phase and the locating phase In the first phase the linker combines the supplied relocatable object files and libraries into a single relocatable object file In the second phase the linker assigns absolute addresses to the object file so it can actually be loaded into a target G
23. 16 O 216_4 __near pointer to 32 8 16 O 220_4 _ far _ paged rt C Language Size Align Type Keyword bit bit Ranges Floating 3 402e 8 1 175e798 Point float 32 8 16 4475e 38 3 402838 double 308 _ 308 64 8 16 WU 2 PA long double 2 225e 1 797e float 3 402e98i 1 175e 38i _Imaginary 32 8 16 1 175e 98i 3 402998i float _Complex 32 32 8 16 real part imaginary part double 308 308 1 797e979i 2 226e i long double 64 8 16 5 5056 308 1 797e308i _Imaginary double long double 64 64 8 16 real part imaginary part _Complex Table 3 1 Data Types amp For the marked data types the alignment is 16 if you specify compiler option align otherwise the alignment is 8 When you use the enum type the compiler will use the smallest sufficient integer type _ Bool char int unless you use compiler option integer enumeration always use 16 bit integers for enumeration float is implemented in little endian IEEE 32 bit single precision format double is implemented in little endian IEEE 64 bit double precision format When you compile for the R8C tiny compiler option r8c __ far and __ paged are the same as __ near d gt See also the Applications Binary Interface ABI 3 12 User s Manual Bit Data Type You can use the __ bit type to define scalars in the bit addressable area and for th
24. 3 1 3 1 Introduction gis ci ees bi eis FAR GA YR GYG RG RYD ds a 3 2 Programming Strategies FF Au 3 4 3 2 1 Memory Spaces FF FF EF eeee 2 4 3 2 2 Bit Programming VV FF FR FF FE FAD 3 6 VI 3 2 3 3 2 4 3 3 3 4 3 4 1 3 4 2 3 4 3 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 3 10 3 11 3 12 3 12 1 3 12 2 3 12 3 3 12 4 3 12 5 3 12 6 3 12 6 1 3 12 6 2 3 12 6 3 3 13 3 14 3 14 1 3 14 2 3 14 3 3 15 Table of Contents Fl ating Point yo a aes Bath Ban PR Re GAA 3 7 General Optimization Tips s a aaua 3 8 Data TY POS eiii chet eiia e E e e A 3 10 Memory Qualifiers V Y cee 3 12 Memory Type Qualifiers 0 0 0 0 0 eee eee 3 13 Accessing Peripherals from C sff VV 3 15 Declare a Data Object at an Absolute Address _ at 3 18 Memory Models V FF FF FE Y A 3 19 Using Assembly in the C Source _asmQ 3 20 Controlling the Compiler Pragmas 3 27 Predefined Macros VV FFF FFF Y kiwat 3 28 Initialized Variables VYY YF 2 30 SWINGS iu a est RR FR YRR di wd Gy A RD 3 30 Switch Statement VYF FF FE FE EFA 3 31 EunctionS ee edad Cees EI Min EE Wd RW WG ae Parameter Passing Y FEE A A AO 3 32 Function Return Types 00 0 0 YF FF eee 3 33 Inlining Functions inline 0 0 00 eee eee 3 34 Intrinsic Functions FF eee 3 36 Calling Assembly Functions _asmfunc 3 37 Interrupt Functio
25. 4 Using the DUP DUPA DUPC DUPF Directives as Maer Os Y YN 4 26 4 10 5 Conditional Assembly IF ELIF and ELSE Directives 4 26 USING THE COMPILER 5 1 5 1 IntroductiOB 4444399 tukiy SENG Oe DRA HERO 5 3 5 2 Compilation Process 00 ccc ee eee 5 4 5 3 Compiler Optimizations 00 0 0 cece eee ee 5 5 5 3 1 Optimize for Size or Speed noaua aaa 5 9 5 4 Calling the Compiler V FFF Y RAD 5 10 5 5 How the Compiler Searches Include Files 5 15 5 6 Compiling for Debugging 0 00 0 eee 5 15 5 7 C Code Checking MISRA C eae 5 16 5 8 C Compiler Diagnostics 00 00 0000 au 5 19 VII VIII Table of Contents 5 9 Run Time Error Checking VV YY Y RA 5 21 5 9 1 Step 1 Build Your Application for Run Time Error ChecKinp iau skane einhinne ea EA 5 24 5 9 2 Step 2 Execute the Application sssaaa 5 25 5 9 3 Examples Producing Run time Errors 5 25 PROFILING 6 1 6 1 What is profiling a a aaaea 6 3 6 1 1 Three methods of profiling VV 000 6 4 6 2 Profiling using Code Instrumentation 6 5 6 2 1 Step 1 Build your Application for Profiling 6 7 6 2 1 1 Profiling Modules and Libraries 6 8 6 2 1 2 Linking Profiling Libraries 00005 6 9 6 2 2 Step 2 Execute the Application 6 9 6 2 3 Step 3 Displaying Profiling Results 6 11 USING THE
26. Build menu select Rebuild d gt For the command line see the command line compiler option p profile in Section 4 1 Compiler Options in Chapter Tool Options of the reference manual 6 2 1 1 PROFILING MODULES AND LIBRARIES Profiling individual modules It is possible to profile individual C modules In this case only limited profiling data is gathered for the functions in the modules compiled without the profiling option When you use the suboption Call graph the profiling data reveals which profiled functions are called by non profiled functions The profiling data does not show how often and from where the non profiled functions themselves are called Though this does not affect the flat profile it might reduce the usefulness of the call graph Profiling library functions EDE and or the control program tcc will link your program with the standard version of the C library 1ibc a Functions from this library which are used in your application will not be profiled If you do want to incorporate the library functions in the profile you must set the appropriate compiler options in the C library makefiles and rebuild the library C Language 6 9 6 2 1 2 LINKING PROFILING LIBRARIES d gt When building your application the application must be linked against a profile library EDE or the control program tcc automatically select the correct library based on the profiling options you specified However if you com
27. C_expression register_save_list regisier name input param list register save list Assembly instructions that may contain parameters from the input list or output list in the form parm_nr regnum Parameter number in the range 0 31 With the optional regnum you can access an individual register from a register pair For example with the word register R2R0 0 selects register RO z amp consiraint_cbar C_expression ll constraint_char C_expression Says that an output operand is written to before the inputs are read so this output must not be the same register as any input Constraint character the type of register to be used for the C_expression see table 3 4 Any C expression For output parameters it must be an lvalue that is something that is legal to have on the left side of an assignment Pregister_name Name of the register you want to reserve C Language 3 21 Typical example adding two C variables using assembly int a b result void main void _ asm add w 1 2 n t mov w 2 0 m result r a r b generated code mov mov add mov w _b RO w _a R1 w R1 RO w R0 _result 0 corresponds to the first C variable 1 corresponds to the second and so on The escape sequence t generates a tab n generates a newline Specifying registers for C variables With a constraint character yo
28. During installation you will be asked to run the License Administrator Otherwise start the License Administrator licadmin exe manually In the License Administrator follow the steps to Import a license key received from Altium by E mail The License Administrator creates a license file for you Create a license file manually B If you prefer to create a license file manually create a file called License dat in the c Xflexlm directory using an ASCII editor and insert the license key information received by E mail in this file This file is called the license file If the directory c flex1m does not exist create the directory If you wish to install the license file in a different directory see section 1 4 4 Modifying tbe License File Location 1 14 amp User s Manual If you already have a license file add the license key information to the existing license file If the license file already contains any SERVER lines you must use another license file See section 1 4 4 Modifying tbe License File Location for additional information The software product and license file are now properly installed 1 4 3 INSTALLING FLOATING LICENSES If you do not have received your license key read section 1 4 1 Obtaining License Information before continuing Install the TASKING software product following the installation procedure described earlier in this chapter on each computer or workstation where you
29. From the Project menu select Project Options Tbe Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the Processor entry and select Memory 3 Make your changes 4 Also make your changes if necessary in the pages Sections Reserved Areas and or Stack Heap in the Linker entry Each time you close the Project Options dialog the file project 1s1 is updated and you can immediately see how your settings are encoded in LSL Note that EDE supports ChromaCoding applying color coding to text and template expansion when you edit LSL files Specify your own LSL file If you want to write your own linker script file you can use the EDE generated file project ls1 as an example Specify this file to EDE as follows 1 From the Project menu select Project Options Tbe Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the Linker entry and select Miscellaneous Using the Linker 8 21 3 Select Use project specific linker script file and add your own file in the edit field 8 6 3 STRUCTURE OF A LINKER SCRIPT FILE A script file consists of several definitions The definitions can appear in any order The architecture definition required In essence an architecture definition describes how the linker should convert logical addresses into physical addresses for a given type of core If the core supports multiple address spaces then for each space the linker must know how to perform this conversion In this context a physical addre
30. Project Options Tbe Project Options dialog appears Here you can specify options that are valid for the entire project To overrule the project options for the currently active file instead from the Project menu select Current File Options Expand the C Compiler entry The C Compiler entry contains several pages where you can specify C compiler settings M16C Project Options GETSTART PJT x E Processor m Optimization E C Compiler Optimization level Release purpose debugging possible 7 E C Compiler Memory Model Code Generation Preprocessing Alignment Language Debug Floating Point Diagnostics MISRA C Miscellaneous Assembler Linker CrossView Pro Flasher ion simplific flow simp K K K K K K c assembli yn inlining lt Loop transformation Constant propagation Optimize for size Optimize for speed K BAe Options string Mm romstrings romconstants novector l PRODDIR Nnclude 02 tradeoff 4 debug info For each page make your changes If you have made all changes click OK The Cancel button closes the dialog without saving your changes With the Default button you can restore the default project options for the current page or all pages in the dialog Make your changes for all other entries Assembler Linker CrossView Pro Flasher of the Project Opt
31. ROM drive and mount the CD ROM on a directory for example cdrom Be sure to use an ISO 9660 file system with Rock Ridge extensions enabled See the UNIX manual pages about mount for details Go to the directory on which the CD ROM is mounted cd cdrom Run the installation script sh install Follow the instructions appearing on your screen First a guestion appears about where to install the software The default answer is usr local On some hosts the installation script asks if you want to install SW000098 the Flexible License Manager FLEXlm If you do not already have FLEXIm on your system you must install it otherwise the product will not work on those hosts See section 1 4 Licensing TASKING Products If the script detects that the software has been installed before the following messages appear on the screen WARNING SWXXXXXX xxxx xxxx already installed Do you want to REINSTALL y n Answering n no to this question causes installation to abort and the following message being displayed gt Installation stopped on user request lt Software Installation and Configuration 1 7 Answer y yes to continue with the installation The last message will be Installation of SWxxxxxx xxxx xxxx completed 5 If you purchased a protected TASKING product license the software product as explained in section 1 4 Licensing TASKING Products 1 3 SOFTWARE CONFIGURATION Now you have installed the s
32. Section placement statements group ordered run addr mem my_ nvram select non volatile CLR DA Section placement from EDE To specify the above settings using EDE follow these steps 1 From the Project menu select Project Options Tbe Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the Linker entry and select Sections Here you can specify wbere sections are localed in memory In the Section type field select Near Data So In the Section name field enter non volatile CLR DA v In the Absolute address field enter mem my_nvram 6 In the Section attr field select Code Data part 8 34 d gt User s Manual 7 Click OK This completes the LSL file for the sample architecture and sample program You can now call the linker with this file and the sample program to obtain an application that works for this architecture For a complete description of the Linker Script Language refer to Chapter 7 Linker Script Language in the Reference Manudl 8 6 8_ THE PROCESSOR DEFINITION USING MULTI PROCESSOR SYSTEMS The processor definition is only needed when you write an LSL file for a multi processor embedded system The processor definition explicitly instantiates a derivative allowing multiple processors of the same type processor proc name derivative deriv_name If no processor definition is available that instantiates a derivative a processor is created with the s
33. The C source module in which the function resides Line number of first statement in the Function The function for which profiling data is gathered and if present the code block number Total amount of time seconds that was spend in the function This includes the time spent in callees of the function Total amount of time seconds that was spend executing the command of the function itself This excludes the spent in callees of the function The relative amount of time spent in this function These should add up to 100 Calls Block Counts Callers Callees Number of calls function counters and basic block counts Number of functions by which this function is called Each function should have at least one caller except _ START Number of different functions that can be called from this function C Language amp In the caller table Module Line Caller Total time Self time The C source module in which the function resides Line number of first statement in the Function The name s of the function s which called the focus function Total amount of time seconds that was spend in the focus function This includes the time spent in callees of the function Total amount of time seconds that was spend executing the command of the focus function itself This excludes the spent in callees of the function Contribution Relative amount of time contributed to the total time of Ca
34. When you do not want the interrupt frame saving restoring registers to be generated you can use the compiler option noframe In that case you will have to specify your own interrupt frame For this you can use the inline capabilities of the compiler d gt Compiler option noframe Do not generate frame for interrupt handler 3 42 P User s Manual 3 13 SECTION NAMING The compiler generates code and data in several types of sections The compiler uses the following section naming convention module name _atir _mem _address The mem suffix depends on the type of the section and the optional attr suffix depends on the section attributes and determines if the section is initialized constant or uninitialized The compiler adds the optional address when you use the __at keyword to specify an absolute address Type a IN Description Gualifier code CO program code data DA __ hear data first 64 kB of memory __near fdata FD __ far data __ far bit Bl __ bit type section bita BA __ bita type section bit addressable data __ bita Table 3 9 Section types and mem section name suffixes Attribute all Description Gualifier suffix init INI defines that the section contains initialization data which is copied from ROM to RAM at program startup clear CLR section is cleared zeroed at startup noclear NCL section is not cleared at startup romdata RO section con
35. code checking 5 16 code generator 5 5 Code instrumentation 6 5 common subexpression elimination 5 7 compaction 5 7 compile 2 17 compile time error checking 5 19 compiler invocation 5 10 optimizations 5 5 setting options 5 11 compiler error messages 5 19 compiler options overview 5 11 5 12 compiler phases backend 5 4 code generator phase 5 5 optimization phase 5 5 peephole optimizer phase 5 5 frontend 5 4 optimization phase 5 4 parser phase 5 4 preprocessor phase 5 4 scanner phase 5 4 conditional assembly 4 26 conditional jump reversal 5 8 configuration EDE directories 1 7 UNIX 1 9 constant propagation 5 7 continuation 4 18 control flow simplification 5 7 control program 9 4 invocation 9 4 options overview 9 5 control program options overview 9 5 9 24 controls 4 4 copy table compression 8 10 creating a makefile 2 13 CSE 5 7 data types 3 10 bit 3 12 dead code elimination 5 8 delete duplicate code sections 8 10 delete duplicate constant data 8 10 delete unreferenced sections 8 10 derivative definition 8 21 directive conditional assembly 4 26 directives 4 4 directories setting 1 7 1 9 division by zero 5 23 EDE 2 3 build an application 2 17 Index create a project 2 11 create a project space 2 10 rebuild an application 2 18 specify development tool options 2 14 starting 2 8 ELF DWARF archiver 9 23 ELF DWARF2 format 8 8 Embedded Development
36. command line options 7 7 7 8 User s Manual e EE The invocation syntax on the command line is asml6c option file The input file must be an assembly source file asm or src asml6c test asm This assembles the file test asm for and generates the file test o which serves as input for the linker n For a complete overview of all options with extensive description see section 4 2 Assembler Options of Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual 7 5 HOW THE ASSEMBLER SEARCHES INCLUDE FILES When you use include files you can specify their location in several ways The assembler searches the specified locations in the following order 1 The absolute pathname if specified in the INCLUDE directive Or if no path or a relative path is specified the same directory as the source file 2 The directories that are specified in the Project Directories dialog I option 3 The paths which were set during installation You can still change these paths See section 1 3 1 Configuring the Embedded Development Environment and environment variable ASM16CINC in section 1 3 2 Configuring tbe Command Line Environment in Chapter Software Installation 4 The default include directory relative to the installation directory 7 6 GENERATING A LIST FILE The list file is an additional output file that contains information about the generated code You can also customize the amount and form of information
37. default C libraries 1 From the Project menu select Project Options Tbe Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the Linker entry and select Libraries 3 Select Link default C libraries 4 Click OK to accept the linker options Ee When you want to link system libraries from the command line you must specify this with the linker option 1 With the option lcl you specify the system library libcl a For example lkml16c lcl start obj Link a user library in EDE To specify your own libraries you have to add the library files to your project 1 From the Project menu select Properties Tbe Project Properties dialog box appears 2 In the Members tab click on the Add existing files to project button 8 16 User s Manual 3 Select the libraries you want to add and click Open 4 Click OK to accept the new project settings EE The invocation syntax on the command line is for example lkml6c start obj mylib a If the library resides in a subdirectory specify that directory with the library name lkml6c start obj mylibs mylib a Library order The order in which libraries appear on the command line is important By default the linker processes object files and libraries in the order in which they appear on the command line Therefore when you use a weak symbol construction like print in an object file or your own library you must position this object library before the C library With the opti
38. double underscore For example replace _bit with _ bit e Old predefined macro names are replaced with new macro names For example replace _ MODEL with _ MODEL e Pragmas are replaced removed or commented because their meaning has changed For example replace pragma asm endasm part with __ asm keyword e M16C intrinsic functions with a single underscore are replaced with intrinsic functions with double underscore For example replace _absb with __absb ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE ail TASKING M diLdVHO Assembly Language 4 3 4 1 INTRODUCTION This chapter describes the most important aspects of the M16C assembly language For a complete overview of the M16C assembly language refer to the M16C Series Software Manual Renesas 4 2 ASSEMBLY SYNTAX An assembly program consists of zero or more statements A statement may optionally be followed by a comment Any source statement can be extended to more lines by including the line continuation character A as the last character on the line The length of a source statement first line and continuation lines is only limited by the amount of available memory Mnemonics and directives are case insensitive Labels symbols directive arguments and literal strings are case sensitive The syntax of an assembly statement is l abel instruction directive macro_call comment label A label is a special symbol which is assigned the value and type of
39. elf is updated when one of its dependencies has changed The absolute file depends on obj files and libraries that must be linked together The obj files on their turn depend on src files that must be assembled and finally src files depend on the C source files c that must be compiled In the makefile makefile this looks like test src test c f dependency cml6c test c rule test obj test src asml6c test src test elf test obj lkml6c otest elf test obj lcs lfps lrts You can use any command that is valid on the command line as a rule in the makefile So rules are not restricted to invocation of the toolchain 9 10 User s Manual Example To build the target test elf call mkm16c with one of the following lines mkml6c test elf mkml6c f mymake mak test elf amp By default the make utility reads makefile so you do not need to specify it on the command line If you want to use another name for the makefile use the option f my_makefile amp If you do not specify a target mkm16c uses the first target defined in the makefile In this example it would build test src instead of test elf The make utility now tries to build test elf based on the makefile and peforms the following steps 1 From the makefile the make utility reads that test elf depends on test obj 2 If test obj does not exist or is out of date the make utility first tries to build this file and reads from the makefile that te
40. first column and alter the default behavior of the assembler control For more information on controls see section 4 8 Assembler Directives and Controls 4 3 ASSEMBLER SIGNIFICANT CHARACTERS You can use all ASCII characters in the assembly source both in strings and in comments Also the extended characters from the ISO 8859 1 Latin 1 set are allowed Some characters have a special meaning to the assembler Special characters associated with expression evaluation are described in section 4 6 3 Expression Operators Other special assembler characters are Assembly Language Character Description Start of a comment Line continuation character or Macro operator argument concatenation Macro operator return decimal value of a symbol Macro operator return hex value of a symbol Macro operator override local label Macro string delimiter or Quoted string DEFINE expansion character String constants delimiter Start of a built in assembly function Location counter substitution Constant number immediate addressing mode String concatenation operator Substring delimiter or Indirect addressing mode operator Note that macro operators have a higher precedence than expression operators 4 4 OPERANDS OF AN ASSEMBLY INSTRUCTION In an instruction the mnemonic is followed by zero one or more operands An operand has one of the following types
41. graph e Function counters e Function timers Block counters not in combination with Call graph or Time This will instrument the code to perform basic block counting As the program runs it will count how many time it executed each branch of each if statement each iteration of a for loop and so on Note that though you can combine Block counters with Function counters this has no effect because Function counters is a subset of Block counters Call graph not in combination with Block counters This will instrument the code to reconstruct the run time call graph As the program runs it stores the relation between the caller and the gathered profiling data Function counters This will instrument the code to perform function call counting This is a subset of the basic Block counters 6 8 User s Manual Time not in combination with Block counters This will instrument the code to measure the time spent in a function This includes the time spent in all called functions callees Clock ticks per second The profiler uses the C library function clock to measure time This is a target dependent function Default the clock function is implemented for the Tasking simulator which runs at 10 MHz If you do not use the simulator for execution you must provide your own clock function To obtain correct time measurements fill in the resolution of your clock function in MHz The default is 10 MHz 4 From the
42. macro name The name of the macro This may not start in the first column arg One or more optional substitutable arguments Multiple arguments must be separated by commas comment An optional comment The following applies to macro arguments Each argument must correspond one to one with the formal arguments of the macro definition If the macro call does not contain the same number of arguments as the macro definition the assembler issues a warning If an argument has an embedded comma or space you must surround the argument by single quotes You can declare a macro call argument as NULL in three ways enter delimiting commas in succession with no intervening spaces macroname ARG1 ARG3 the second argument is a NULL argument terminate the argument list with a comma the arguments that normally would follow are now considered NULL macroname ARG1 the second and all following arguments are NULL declare the argument as a NULL string No character is substituted in the generated statements that reference a NULL argument 4 22 User s Manual 4 10 3 USING OPERATORS FOR MACRO ARGUMENTS The assembler recognizes certain text operators within macro definitions which allow text substitution of arguments during macro expansion You can use these operators for text concatenation numeric conversion and string handling Operator Name Description Macro argument Concatenates a macro argument wi
43. modules that are read before 9 4 1 CALLING THE ARCHIVER You can only call the archiver from the command line The invocation syntax is arml6c key option sub option library object file key_option With a key option you specify the main task which the archiver should perform You must always specify a key option 9 24 sub_ option library object file User s Manual Sub options specify into more detail how the archiver should perform the task that is specified with the key option It is not obligatory to specify sub options The name of the library file on which the archiver performs the specified action You must always specify a library name except for the option and V When the library is not in the current directory specify the complete path either absolute or relative to the library The name of an object file You must always specify an object file name when you add extract replace or remove an object file from the library Options of the archiver utility The following archiver options are available Description Option Sub option Main functions key options Replace or add an object module r a b c u V Extract an object module from the library X V Delete object module from library d V Move object module to another position m a b v Print a table of contents of the library t s0 s1 Print object module to standard output p Sub options Append or m
44. reversed A3 0000 0000 mov eax b bis imported so the instruction refers to 0x0000 since its location is unknown Now assume that the linker links this code so that the section in which a is located is relocated by 0x10000 bytes and b turns out to be at 0x9A12 The linker modifies the code to be 8 8 User s Manual Al 3412 0100 mov a eax 0x10000 added to the address A3 129A 0000 mov eax b Ox9A12 patched in for b These adjustments affect instructions but keep in mind that any pointers in the data part of a relocatable object file have to be modified as well Output formats The linker can produce its output in different file formats The default ELF DWARF2 format elf contains an image of the executable code and data and can contain additional debug information The Intel Hex format hex and Motorola S record format s only contain an image of the executable code and data You can specify a format with the options o output and c chip output Controlling the linker Via a so called linker script file you can gain complete control over the linker The script language used to describe these features is called the Linker Script Language LSL You can define The types of memory that are installed in the embedded target system To assign locations to code and data sections the linker must know what memory devices are actually installed in the embedded target system For each physical memory device the link
45. temporary files Usually your system already uses this variable In this case you do not need to change it Table 1 1 Environment variables The following examples show how to set an environment variable using the PATH variable as an example Example for Windows 95 98 Add the following line to your autoexec bat file set PATH path c Xcml6cXbin amp You can also type this line in a Command Prompt window but you will loose this setting after you close the window Exambple for Windows NT 1 Right click on the My Computer icon on your desktop and select Properties from the menu Tbe System Properties dialog appears 2 Select the Environment tab 3 In the list of System Variables sclect Path 4 In the Value field add the path where the executables are located to the existing path information Separate pathnames with a semicolon For example c cml6c bin 5 Click on the Set button then click OK Software Installation and Configuration 1 11 Example for Windows XP 2000 1 Y Right click on the My Computer icon on your desktop and select Properties from the menu The System Properties dialog appears Select the Advanced tab Click on the Environment Variables button Tbe Environment Variables dialog appears In the list of System variables sclect Path Click on the Edit button Tbe Edit System Variable dialog appears In the Variable value field add the path where th
46. the current program location counter A label can consist of letters digits and underscore characters _ The first character cannot be a digit A label which is prefixed by whitespace spaces or tabs has to be followed by a colon The size of an identifier is only limited by the amount of available memory Examples LABl This label is followed by a colon and can be prefixed by whitespace LAB1 This label has to start at the beginning of a line 4 4 User s Manual instruction An instruction consists of a mnemonic and zero one or more operands It must not start in the first column Operands are described in section 4 4 Operands of an Assembly Instruction The instructions are described in the M76C Series Software Manual Renesas Examples REIT No operand PUSH W RO One operand ADD W RO R1 STZX 12 22 15 FB Two operands Three operands directive With directives you can control the assembler from within the assembly source These must not start in the first column Directives are described in section 4 8 Assembler Directives and Controls macro_call A call to a previously defined macro It must not start in the first column Macros are described in section 4 10 Macro Operations You can use empty lines or lines with only comments Apart from the assembly statements as described above you can put a so called control line in your assembly source file These lines start with a in the
47. the installation it is explained how to configure the software and how to install the license information that is needed to actually use the software 1 2 SOFTWARE INSTALLATION 1 2 1 INSTALLATION FOR WINDOWS 1 2 Start Windows 95 98 XP NT 2000 if you have not already done so Insert the CD ROM into the CD ROM drive If the TASKING Showroom dialog box appears proceed with Step 5 Click the Start button and select Run In the dialog box type d setup substitute the correct drive letter for your CD ROM drive and click on the OK button The TASKING Showroom dialog box appears Select a product and click on the Install button Follow the instructions that appear on your screen You can find your serial number on the invoice delivery note or picking slip delivered with the product License the software product as explained in section 1 4 Licensing TASKING Products 1 4 7 User s Manual 1 2 2 INSTALLATION FOR LINUX Each product on the CD ROM is available as an RPM package Debian package and as a gzipped tar file For each product the following files are present SWproduct version RPMrelease i386 rpm swproduct_version release_i386 deb SWproduct version tar gz These three files contain exactly the same information so you only have to install one of them When your Linux distribution supports RPM packages you can install the rpm file For a Debian based distribution you
48. the int0 interrupt enable bit in the external interrupt enable register The compiler generates _main type func mov b 136 224 bset 3 225 btst 4 225 jltu _2 bclr 3 225 _23 bset 0 150 You can easily find a list of defined SFRs and defined bits by inspecting the SFR file for a specific core The files are named regcore sfr for example regm30100 sfr Define Special Function Registers __sfr With the __ sfr memory type qualifier you can define a symbol as a Special Function Register SFR The compiler may assume that special SFR operations can be performed on such symbols The compiler can decide to use bit instructions for those special function registers that are bit accessible For example if bits are defined in the SFR definition these bits can be accessed using bit instructions C Language 3 17 db A typical definition of a special function register looks as follows typedef struct _Bool _ b0 1 _Bool _ bl 1 _Bool __ b2 1 _Bool __b3 1 _Bool __b4 1 _Bool __b5 1 _Bool __ b6 1 _Bool __b7 1 _Bool _ b31 1 _ bitstruct_t define PO __sfr unsigned char 0x00E0 define P0_0 __sfr _ bitstruct_t amp P0 gt __b0 define INTEN __sfr unsigned char 0x0096 define INTOEN _ sfr _ bitstruct_t amp INTEN gt __b0 Example of access to the SFR PO 0x56 P0_0 INTOEN It is incorrect to optimize away access to registers Therefore the compiler deals with the special functi
49. the object my_struct is located in near memory where 4 bytes are reserved 2 bytes for int i and 2 bytes for pointer p which points to a variable in near memory Typedef Typedef declarations follow the same scope rules as any declared object Typedef names may be re declared in inner blocks but not at the parameter level However in typedef declarations memory type qualifiers are allowed A typedef declaration should at least contain one type qualifier typedef _ near int NEARINT storage type _ near OK typedef int __ near PTR PTR points to an int in _ near PTR resides in default memory 3 4 2 ACCESSING PERIPHERALS FROM C _ SFR It is easy to access Special Function Registers SFRs that relate to peripherals from C The SFRs are defined in a special function register file sfr as symbol names for use with the compiler An SFR file contains the names of the SFRs and the bits in the SFRs Based on the target processor the compiler includes the correct SFR file See compiler option C in chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual Using the correct SFR file you can access the special function registers and its individual bits using the symbols defined in the SFR file 3 16 User s Manual Example use in C for the M30100 target with SFR file regm30100 sfr PO 0x88 fill port register p0 Pl 3 1 set bit 3 of port register Pl if Pl A 1 Pl 3 0 INTOEN 1 use of bit name set
50. the source file The definition of a macro consists of three parts e Header which assigns a name to the macro and defines the arguments e Body which contains the code or instructions to be inserted when te macro is called 4 20 User s Manual e Terminator which indicates the end of the macro definition ENDM directive A macro definition takes the following form Header macro_name MACRO arg arg comment Body source statements Terminator ENDM If the macro name is the same as an existing assembler directive or mnemonic opcode the assembler replaces the directive or mnemonic opcode with the macro and issues a warning The arguments are symbolic names that the macro preprocessor replaces with the literal arguments when the macro is expanded called Each argument must follow the same rules as global symbol names Argument names cannot start with a percent sign 96 Example The macro definition CONSTD MACRO reg value header mov w value reg body ENDM terminator The macro call DEFSECT data DATA SECT data CONSTD R0 0x1234 END The macro expands as follows mov w 0x1234 R0 Assembly Language 4 21 4 10 2 CALLING A MACRO To invoke a macro construct a source statement with the following format label macro name arg arg comment where label An optional label that corresponds to the value of the location counter at the start of the macro expansion
51. to manipulate individual bits However these instructions are usually only available for variables in the first 8kB of memory the bita space To generate these fast bit instructions the compiler cm16c supports the __ bit basic type This type is implicitly allocated in the bit space Pointers to __ bit variables are special since they use bit addresses instead of bytes Therefore __ bit variables do have some restrictions see subsection Bit Data Type in section 3 3 Data Types By using the __ bit type the compiler cm16c can also generate fast bit instructions for bitfield operations To make this possible you have to allocate the structure in the bita space using the _ bita memory qualifier _ bita struct int bit0 1 int bitl 1 int bit2 1 threebits is equivalent to C Language 3 7 struct __ bit bit0 _ bit bitl _ bit bit2 threebits Note however that the upper example places bitfields in the bita space making each bit within a byte addressable mau 8 whereas the lower example places bits in the bit space making each bit directly addressable mau 1 amp Former TASKING M16C toolchains supported __ atbit for an eguivalent construction While this is still supported its use is deprecated 3 2 3__ FLOATING POINT Floating point operations are not supported by M16C hardware Instead run time functions are used to handle floating points Try to avoid using floating point and use
52. until all obj files are linked and the final e1n or elf file has been reached The option r for incremental linking also suppresses warnings and errors because of unresolved symbols Using the Linker 8 19 8 6_ CONTROLLING THE LINKER WITH A SCRIPT With the options on the command line you can control the linker s behavior to a certain degree From EDE it is also possible to determine where your sections will be located how much memory is available which sorts of memory are available and so on EDE passes these locating directions to the linker via a script file If you want even more control over the locating process you can supply your own script The language for the script is called the Linker Script Language or shortly LSL You can specify the script file to the linker which reads it and locates your application exactly as defined in the script If you do not specify your own script file the linker always reads a standard script file which is supplied with the toolchain 8 6 1 PURPOSE OF THE LINKER SCRIPT LANGUAGE The Linker Script Language LSL serves three purposes 1 It provides the linker with a definition of the target s core architecture This definition is supplied with the toolchain 2 It provides the linker with a specification of the memory attached to the target processor 3 It provides the linker with information on how your application should be located in memory This gives you for example th
53. when a string longer than 4 characters is used in a DB assembler directive in that case all characters result in a constant byte Null strings have a value of 0 Square brackets D delimit a substring operation in the form string offset length offset is the start position within string length is the length of the desired substring Both values may not exceed the size of string Assembly Language 4 9 Examples ABCD rrr79 AN BC AB tl rr dl abcdef ab rt cd TASKING 0 4 se se ote se Ne Ne 0x41424344 to enclose a quote double it or to enclose a quote escape it 0x4143 string used in expression null string 0x61626364 ef are ignored warning string value truncated you can concatenate two strings with the operator This results in abcd results in the substring TASK 4 6 3 EXPRESSION OPERATORS The next table shows the assembler operators They are ordered according to their precedence Operators of the same precedence are evaluated left to right Expressions between parentheses have the highest priority innermost first Valid operands include numeric constants literal ASCII strings and symbols Most assembler operators can be used with both integer and floating point values If one operand has an integer value and the other operand has a floating point value the integer is converted to a floating point value before the
54. will use the software product On each PC or workstation where you will use the TASKING software product the location of a license file must be known containing the information of all licenses Either create a local license file or point to a license file on a server Add a licence key to a local license file ee A local license file can reduce network traffic On Windows you can follow the same steps to import a license key or create a license file manually as explained in the previous section with the installation of a node locked license On UNIX you have to insert the license key manually in the license file The default location of the license file License dat is in directory usr local flexlm licenses for UNIX If you wish to install the license file in a different directory see section 1 4 4 Modifying tbe License File Location If you already have a license file add the license key information to the existing license file If the license file already contains any SERVER lines make sure that the number of SERVER lines and their contents match otherwise you must use another license file See section 1 4 4 Modifying tbe License File Location for additional information Software Installation and Configuration 1 15 Point to a license file on the server d gt Set the environment variable LM_LICENSE_FILE to port host where bost and port come from the SERVER line in the license file On Windows you can use
55. 000 dest_offset 0x00000 size 64k dest space far space far id 2 mau 8 map src_offset 0x00000 dest_offset 0x00000 size 1M dest bus data_bus 8 26 User s Manual The keyword map corresponds with the arrows in the drawing You can map e address space gt address space e address space gt bus memory gt bus not shown in the drawing bus gt bus not shown in the drawing Next the internal bus named data_bus must be defined in LSL bus data_bus mau 8 width 8 there are 8 data lines on the bus This completes the LSL code in the architecture definition Note that all code above goes into the architecture definition thus between architecture M16C All code above goes here 8 6 5 THE DERIVATIVE DEFINITION Although you will probably not need to program the derivative definition unless you are using multiple cores the description below helps to understand the Linker Script Language and how the definitions are interrelated A derivative is the design of a processor as implemented on a chip or FPGA It comprises one or more cores and on chip memory The derivative definition includes e core definition an instance of a core architecture e bus definition the I O buses of the core architecture e memory definitions internal or on chip memory Using the Linker 8 27 Core Each derivative must have at least one core and each core must have
56. 4 project 2 7 add new files 2 12 create 2 11 project file 2 7 project space 2 7 creale 2 10 project space file 2 7 Q quality assurence report 5 17 rebuilding libraries 3 46 register allocator 5 5 register bank switching 3 40 register usage 3 32 3 33 registers 4 5 4 6 relocatable object file 8 3 debug information 8 6 header information 8 6 object code 8 6 relocation information 8 6 symbols 8 6 relocation expressions 8 7 reserved symbols 4 6 return decimal value operator 4 23 Index return hex value operator 4 23 reverse inlining 5 7 rom 3 13 ROM image compression 8 10 ROM monitor 2 16 run time error checking 5 21 division by zero 5 23 malloc checks 5 22 bounds checking 5 21 5 23 unhandled case switch 5 22 S scanf formatter 3 45 scanner 5 4 section layout definition 8 23 section names 3 42 sections 3 42 4 17 absolute 4 18 activation 4 18 cleared 4 19 definition 4 17 software installation Linux 1 4 UNIX 1 6 Windows 95 98 XP NT 2000 1 3 special function registers define 3 16 stack overflow 5 23 statement 4 3 storage types See memory qualifiers string 3 30 substring 4 8 subscript strength reduction 5 8 substring 4 8 switch restore 3 31 switch optimization 5 7 switch statement 3 31 symbol 4 6 synchronize options with ROM monitor 2 16 syntax of an expression 4 7 Index Index 9 T arm16c 9 23 ccm16c 9 4 control progra
57. 5 9 1_ STEP 1 BUILD YOUR APPLICATION FOR RUN TIME ERROR CHECKING To instruct the compiler to add run time checking code For checks at application wide scope 1 From the Project menu select Project Options The Project Options dialog box appears Or for checks at module scope From the Project menu select Current File Options The File Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the C Compiler entry and select Run time Error Checking 3 Enable one or more of the following options e Bounds checking e Report unhandled case in a switch e Malloc consistency checks e Stack overflow check e Division by zero check Ee cml6c runtime r flags Instead of using the compiler option to enable run time error checking for your whole application you can also use pragma runtime to enable run time error checking for parts of the application The pragma works exactly the same as the compiler option fpragma runtime flags d gt Compiler option runtime in section 4 1 Compiler Options in Chapter 4 Tool Options of the Reference Manual When a run time error is detected by default a message is printed on stdout which is connected to the CrossView Terminal Window while the program continues If this is not desirable you can replace the default error function __ runtime _error by a custom function Using the Compiler 5 25 5 9 2 STEP 2 EXECUTE THE APPLICATION Once you have compiled and linked the applicati
58. ASSEMBLER 7 1 71 Introducti Laake ag on Gd o FN 73 7 2 Assembly Process 00 0 teens Ta 73 Assembler Optimizations YF Ra 7 4 74 Calling the Assembler VYF FY au T 7 5 How the Assembler Searches Include Files 7 8 7 6 Generating a List File YF FY iaai 7 8 TA Assembler Error Messages 00 000 0c eee 7 9 USING THE LINKER 8 1 8 1 Introduction 2 see kan pace tug y No POs dg eaS 8 3 8 2 Linking Process FF eee ene 8 4 8 2 1 Phase 1 Linking Y YF FR FF FFR ee 8 6 8 2 2 Phase 2 Locating 60 eee eee 8 7 8 2 3 Linker Optimizations sssaaa aaaea 8 9 8 3 Calling the Linker o uu 3 11 Table of Contents 8 4 Linking with Libraries Y a 8 14 8 4 1 Specifying Libraries to the Linker 8 15 8 4 2 How the Linker Searches Libraries 8 16 8 4 3 How the Linker Extracts Objects from Libraries 8 17 8 5 Incremental Linking 2 0 0 0 eee eee 8 18 8 6 Controlling the Linker with a Script 8 19 8 6 1 Purpose of the Linker Script Language 8 19 8 6 2 EDE and ESE 4 5 ete 205 Ae a8 bod Sees tre death Adn ee dy 8 20 8 6 3 Structure of a Linker Script File 00005 8 21 8 6 4 The Architecture Definition 0 000 reas 8 24 8 6 5 The Derivative Definition V 8 26 8 6 6 The Memory Definition 0 00 0 cece eee 8 28 8 6 7 The Section Layout Definition
59. E If you have more than one product using the FLEXIm license manager you can specify multiple license files to the LM_LICENSE_FILE environment variable by separating each pathname lfpath with a on UNIX Example Windows set LM_LICENSE_FILE c flexlm license dat c license txt Example UNIX setenv LM_LICENSE_FILE usr local flexlm licenses license dat myprod license txt If the license file is not available on these hosts you must set LM_LICENSE_FILE to port host where host is the host name of the system which runs the FLEXIm license manager and port is the TCP IP port number on which the license manager listens To obtain the port number look in the license file at Host for a line starting with SERVER The fourth field on this line specifies the TCP IP port number on which the license server listens For example setenv LM LICENSE FILE 7594 elliot See the FLEXIm PDF manual delivered with SW000098 which is present on each TASKING product CD for detailed information Software Installation and Configuration 1 4 5_ HOW TO DETERMINE THE HOST ID The host ID depends on the platform of the machine Please use one of the methods listed below to determine the host ID Platform Tool to retrieve host ID Example host ID HP UX lanscan 0000F0050185 use the station address without the leading Ox Linux hostid 11ac5702 SunOS Solaris hostid 170a3472 Windows licadmin License Administrato
60. Environment 2 3 environment variables 1 9 ASMI6CINC 1 9 CCM16CBIN 1 9 CCM16COPT 1 9 9 8 CMI6CINC 1 9 LIBM16C 1 9 LIBRS8C 1 9 LM_LICENSE FILE 1 10 1 16 PATH 1 9 TASKING_LIC_WAIT 1 10 TMPDIR 1 10 diagnostics compiler 5 19 error messages assembler 7 9 compiler 5 19 linker 8 38 expression simplification 5 7 expressions 4 7 absolute 4 7 relative 4 7 relocatable 4 7 F file extensions 2 6 first fit decreasing 8 9 flash utility 9 27 invocation 9 27 options overview 9 28 flashm16c 9 27 floating license 1 12 flow simplification 5 7 Index Index 5 formatters printf 3 45 scanf 3 45 forward store 5 8 frontend compiler phase 5 4 optimization 5 4 function 4 11 syntax 4 11 function qualifiers _ asmfunc 3 37 __bankswitch 3 40 _ frame 3 41 __ interrupt 3 39 __interrupt_fixed 3 39 functions 3 32 inline 3 34 parameter passing 3 32 return types 3 33 host ID determining 1 17 host name determining 1 17 IEEE 32 bit single precision format 3 11 IEEE 64 bit double precision format 3 11 include files default directory 5 15 7 8 8 17 setting search directories 1 7 1 9 incremental linking 8 18 initialized variables 3 30 inline assembly 3 25 __asm 3 20 inline functions 3 34 inlining functions 5 7 input specification 4 3 installation licensing 1 12 Linux 1 4 Debian 1 5 RPM 1 4 tar gz 1 5 UNIX 1 6 Windows 95 98 XP NT 2000 1 3 instructio
61. G THE DUP DUPA DUPC DUPF db DIRECTIVES AS MACROS The DUP DUPA DUPC and DUPF directives are specialized macro forms to repeat a block of source statements You can think of them as a simultaneous definition and call of an unnamed macro The source statements between the DUP DUPA DUPC and DUPF directives and the ENDM directive follow the same rules as macro definitions For a detailed description of these directives see section 3 3 Assembler Directives in Chapter Assembly Language of the Reference Manual 4 10 5 CONDITIONAL ASSEMBLY IF ELIF AND ELSE DIRECTIVES With the conditional assembly directives you can instruct the macro preprocessor to use a part of the code that matches a certain condition You can specify assembly conditions with arguments in the case of macros or through definition of symbols via the DEFINE SET and EQU directives The built in functions of the assembler provide a versatile means of testing many conditions of the assembly environment You can use conditional directives also within a macro definition to check at expansion time if arguments fall within a certain range of values In this way macros become self checking and can generate error messages to any desired level of detail The conditional assembly directive IF has the following form IF expression ELIF expression the ELIF directive is optional ELSE the ELSE directive is optional ENDIF Assembly Languag
62. IF Conditional assembly MACRO Define macro PMACRO Undefine purge macro Overview of debug directives Directive Description CALLS Passes call information to object file Used by the linker to build a call graph and calculate stack size 4 8 2 OVERVIEW OF ASSEMBLER CONTROLS The following tables provide an overview of all assembler controls For a detailed description see section 3 3 4 Detailed Description of Assembler Controls in Chapter Assembly Language of the Reference Manual Overview of assembly listing controls Control Description LIST ON OFF Generation of assembly list file temporary ON OFF LIST flags Exclude include lines in assembly list file PAGE Generate formfeed in assembly list file PAGE settings Define page layout for assemly list file PRCTL Send control string to printer STITLE string Set program subtitle in header of assembly list file TITLE string Set program title in headerof assembly list file Assembly Language Overview of miscellaneous assembler controls Control Description CASE ON OFF Case sensitive user names ON OFF DEBUG ON OFF Generation of symbolic debug ON OFF DEBUG flags Generation of symbolic debug ON OFF IDENT Assembler treats labels by default as local or global LOCAL GLOBAL OBJECT Alternative name for the generated object file OPTJ ON OFF Turn on off conditional optimization WARNING OFF num
63. ITCHING _ bankswitch Normally when an interrupt function is called all registers that might possibly be corrupted during the execution of the interrupt function are saved on the stack so the registers are available for the interrupt function After return from thrrupt function the original values are restored from the stack With the function qualifier __ bankswitch you can specify to use register bank 1 for the interrupt function This minimizes the interrupt latency because registers do not need to be pushed on the stack You can use this to reduce time for high speed interrupt handling _ interrupt vector _ bankswitch void isr void _ interrupt fixed vector _ bankswitch void isr void C Language 3 41 3 12 6 3 INTERRUPT FRAME _ frame With the function qualifier __ frame you can specify which registers must be saved for a particular interrupt function Only the specified registers will be pushed and popped from the stack The syntax is _ interrupt vector _ frame reg void isr void __interrupt_fixed vector _ frame reg void isr void where reg can be one of the following registers RO R3 AO Al FB or SB If you do not specify the function qualifier __ frame the C compiler determines which registers must be pushed and popped Example __interrupt 1 _ frame R0 R1 void alarm void an interrupt function
64. MIL Medium level Intermediate Language 4 The frontend optimization phase Target processor independent optimizations are performed by transforming the intermediate code Using the Compiler 5 5 Backend phases 1 Instruction selector phase This phase reads the MIL input and translates it into Low level Intermediate Language LIL The LIL objects correspond to an M16C processor instruction with an opcode operands and information used within the compiler Peephole optimizer phase This phase replaces instruction sequences by equivalent but faster and or shorter sequences rearranges instructions and deletes unnecessary instructions Register allocator phase This phase chooses a physical register to use for each virtual register The backend optimization phase Performs target processor independent and dependent optimizations which operate on the Low level Intermediate Language The code generation formatter phase This phase reads through the LIL operations to generate assembly language output 5 3 COMPILER OPTIMIZATIONS The compiler has a number of optimizations which you can enable or disable To enable or disable optimizations 1 From the Project menu select Project Options The Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the C Compiler entry and select Optimization 3 Select an optimization level in the Optimization level box or In the Optimization level box select Custom optimizatio
65. NERAL OPTIMIZATION TIPS Try to use local variables instead of global variables because e Locals can often be allocated in registers e Memory on the stack can be reused by sibling functions e The compiler must assume external function calls read and write all global variables which might make some optimizations impossible Avoid taking the address of variables using the amp operator because e Variables whose address is taken cannot be allocated in a register e The compiler must assume every external function can call the variable by reference precluding some optimizations Optimization settings Inline function calls e Enable Function inlining or choose the Agressive all optimization level on the Optimization page of the Compiler options command line option Oi or O3 Use function qualifiers inline and __ noinline to give extra hints to the compiler e Inlining results in faster but often in larger code if Optimize for size is not set e Debugging inlined code can be harder Reverse inlining C Language 3 9 Be The compiler has an option to reverse inline functions by making a compiler generated function for repeated code seguences This always results in smaller but slower code To get the smallest code size possible this optimization can really help You can enable both Function inlining and Reverse inlining at the same time Inlining may increase the possibilities for reverse inlining which l
66. Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the C Compiler entry and select Optimization 3 In the Optimization level box select Debug purpose 5 7 C CODE CHECKING MISRA C The C programming language is a standard for high level language programming in embedded systems yet it is considered somewhat unsuitable for programming safety related applications Through enhanced code checking and strict enforcement of best practice programming rules TASKING MISRA C code checking helps you to produce more robust code MISRA C specifies a subset of the C programming language which is intended to be suitable for embedded automotive systems It consists of a set of rules defined by MISRA C 2004 in Guidelines for the use of the C Language in critical systems MIRA Limited 2004 Using the Compiler 5 17 db The compiler also supports the MISRA C 1998 version of the MISRA C rules You can select this version with the following C compiler option misrac version 1998 For a complete overview of all MISRA C rules see Chapter 8 MISRA C Rules in the Reference Manual Implemeniation issues 6 The MISRA C implementation in the compiler supports nearly all rules Only few rules are not supported because they address documentation run time behavior or other issues that cannot be checked by static source code inspection or because they require an application wide overview During compilation of the code violations of the enab
67. Suppress one or all warnings 4 9 WORKING WITH SECTIONS Sections are absolute or relocatable blocks of contiguous memory that can contain code or data Some sections contain code or data that your program declared and uses directly while other sections are created by the compiler or linker and contain debug information or code or data to initialize your application These sections can be named in such a way that different modules can implement different parts of these sections These sections are located in memory by the linker using the linker script language LSL so that concerns about memory placement are postponed until after the assembly process All instructions and directives which generate data or code must be within an active section The assembler emits a warning if code or data starts without a section definition and activation The compiler automatically generates sections If you program in assembly you have to define sections yourself For more information about locating sections see section 8 6 7 The Section Layout Definition Locating Sections in chapter Using the Linker Section definition Sections are defined with the DEFSECT directive and have a name A section may have attributes to instruct the linker to place it on a predefined starting address or that it may be overlaid with another section DEFSECT name type attribute AT address 4 18 User s Manual See the DEFSECT directi
68. TRING ENDM The macro is called as follows STR_MAC ABCD The macro expands as follows DB ABCD Within double quotes DEFINE directive definitions can be expanded Take care when using constructions with quotes and double quotes to avoid inappropriate expansions Since a DEFINE expansion occurs before a macro substitution all DEFINE symbols are replaced first within a macro argument string DEFINE LONG short STR_MAC MACRO STRING MSG This is a LONG STRING MSG This is a LONG STRING ENDM If the macro is called as follows STR_MAC sentence Assembly Language 4 25 The macro expands as MSG This is a LONG STRING MSG This is a short sentence Single guotes prevent expansion Macro Local Label Override Operator If you use labels in macros the assembler normally generates another unique name for the labels such as LAB__M_L0000001 The macro operator prevents name mangling on macro local labels Consider the following macro definition INIT MACRO ARG CNT MOV W FCNT A0O LAB DB ARG DEC W AO JNZ LAB ENDM The macro is called as follows INIT 2 4 The macro expands as MOV W 4 A0 LAB DB 2 DEC W AO JNZ LAB Without the operator the macro preprocessor would choose another name for LAB because the label already exists The macro then would expand like MOV W 4 A0 LAB M L000001 DB 2 DEC W AO JNZ LAB M L000001 4 26 User s Manual 4 10 4 USIN
69. The control program however can also pass an option directly to a tool Such an option is not interpreted by the control program but by the tool itself The next example illustrates how an option is passed directly to the linker to link a user defined library ccml6c Wl lmylib test c Use the following options to pass arguments to the various tools 9 7 9 8 d gt User s Manual Description Option Pass argument directly to the C compiler Wcparg Pass argument directly to the C pre linker Wplarg Pass argument directly to the C compiler Wcarg Pass argument directly to the assembler Waarg Pass argument directly to the linker Wlarg Table 9 2 Control program options to pass an option directly to a tool If you specify an unknown option to the control program the control program looks if it is an option for a specific tool If so it passes the option directly to the tool However it is recommended to use the control program options for passing arguments directly to tools With the environment variable CCM16COPT you can define options and or arguments that the control programs always processes before the command line arguments For example if you use the control program always with the option no map file do not generate a linker map file you can specify no map file to the environment variable CCM16COPT See section 1 3 2 Configuring the Command Line Environment in Chapter Softwar
70. UALIFIERS You can use memory qualifiers to allocate static objects in a particular part of the addressing space of the processor In addition you can place variables at absolute addresses with the keyword _ at C Language 3 13 3 4 1 MEMORY TYPE GUALIFIERS In the TASKING C language you can specify that a variable must lie in a specific part of memory You can do this with a memory type qualifier You can use the following memory type gualifiers Gualifier Description __ bita Bit addressable RAM first 8 kB of memory __ sfr Defines a special function register Special optimizations are performed on this type of variables Data is located in the SFR space __near Data is located in the first 64 KB of memory __ far Data is located anywhere in memory __paged Data is located in a 64 kB page anywhere in memory __rom Data defined with this gualifier is placed in ROM This section is excluded from automatic initialization by the startup code __ rom is not the same as const Table 3 2 Memory type qualifiers If you do not specify a memory type qualifier for the M16C the variable implicitly gets the default memory type of the selected memory model see section 3 5 Memory Models Functions are by default allocated in ROM In this case you can omit the memory qualifier __ rom You cannot use memory qualifiers for function return values d gt See also the assembler directive DEFSECT
71. a specification of its core architecture This core architecture must be defined somewhere in the LSL file s core M16C architecture Ml6C Bus Each derivative can contain a bus definition for connecting external memory In this example the bus data_bus maps to the bus data_bus defined in the architecture definition of core M16C bus data_bus mau 8 width 8 map dest bus M16C data_bus dest_offset 0 size 256 Memory Memory is usually described in a separate memory definition but you can specify on chip memory for a derivative For example memory internal_ram type ram size 16k mau 8 map src offset 0x0000 dest_offset 0x0000 size 16k dest bus Ml6C data_ bus This completes the LSL code in the derivative definition Note that all code above goes into the derivative definition thus between derivative X name of derivative All code above goes here 8 28 B 8 User s Manual If you want to create a custom derivative and you want to use EDE to select sections the derivative must be called M16C since EDE uses this name in the generated LSL file If you want to specify external memory in EDE the custom derivative must contain a bus named data_bus for the same reason In EDE you have to define a target processor in the Processor pages of the Project Project Options dialog 6 6_ THE MEMORY DEFINITION Once the core architecture is defined i
72. ake a backup copy of the original library and copy the new library to the 1ib m16c directory of the product 3 15 CONVERTING C MODULES TO ISO C99 The TASKING M16C C compiler fully supports the ISO IEC 9899 1999 E standard V2 3 and older C source files may not meet the requirements of the ISO C99 standard However EDE provides an option to convert these files automatically To convert one or more C source files 1 Click on the Convert C modules to the ISO C style button fo The Conversion dialog box appears 3 48 D9 ha User s Manual Conversion x Convert C modules to the new ISO C 1999 style M Convert Current selected file hello c m Options IV Prompt before replace IV Insert comment with each replacement PUR Note ZRZ can be used as a macro containing the replacement string cos Select whether you want to convert All C files in project or the Current selected file Enable or disable the options Prompt before replace and Insert comment with each replacement If you select comments you can format tbe comments to be inserted Type a format string in the comment field For example to insert C style comments with a date type 2004 1 where 1 is replaced with the standard replacement message Click OK to start the conversion During conversion the following will be changed e M16C keywords with a single underscore are replaced with keywords with
73. ame name as the derivative Using the Linker 8 7 LINKER LABELS The linker creates labels that you can use to refer to from within the application software Some of these labels are real labels at the beginning or the end of a section Other labels have a second function these labels are used to address generated data in the locating phase The data is only generated if the label is used Linker labels are labels starting with __Ic_ The linker assigns addresses to the following labels when they are referenced Label Description _ lc cp Start of copy table Same as __l1c_ub_ table The copy table gives the source and destination addresses of sections to be copied This table will be generated by the linker only if this label is used __lc_bh Begin of heap Same as __lc_ub heap __lc_eh End of heap Same as __lc_ue heap __lc_bs Begin of stack Same as __lc_ub sp _ lc es End of stack Same as __lc_ue sp lc_u name User defined label The label must be defined in the LSL file For example _ lc u int tab INTTAB lc_ub name __lc_b name Begin of section name Also used to mark the begin of the stack or heap or copy table lc_ue name lc_e name End of section name Also used to mark the begin of the stack or heap lc_cb name Start address of an overlay section in ROM lc_ce name End address of an overlay section in ROM __lc gb name Begin of group na
74. and buttons one or more windows default a window to edit source files a project window and an output window and a status bar Project Options Compile Build Rebuild Debug On line Manuals Sil TASKING EDE Toolchain C target examples demo demo pit File Edit Search Project Build Text Document Customize Tools Window Help amp C target examples demo DEMO C include lt string h gt include lt stdio h gt C Marget examples demo psp demo 1 Project Ei demo 5 Files Project Window Contains several tabs for viewing information about projects and other files define BELL CHAR typedef enum color_e Document Windows Used to view and edit files red yellow blue type f struct rec_s Output Window Contains several tabs to display and manipulate results of EDE operations For example to view the results of builds or compiles A Fie Find A Search Browse A Difference A Shell A Symbols Ot fins Linell Cok 1 Figure 2 4 EDE desktop Getting Started 2 9 2 4 USING THE SAMPLE PROJECTS When you start EDE for the first time see section 2 3 Start EDE EDE opens with a ready defined project space that contains several sample projects Each project has its own subdirectory in the examples directory Each directory contains a file readme txt with information about the example T
75. ange input radix for constants SECT Activate a declared section UNDEF Undefine DEFINE symbol WARN Programmer generated warning Assembly Language Overview of symbol definition directives Directive Description BTEOU Bit eguate EOU Assigns permanent value to a symbol EXTERN External symbol declaration GLOBAL Global symbol declaration LOCAL Local symbol declaration SET Set temporary value to a symbol SIZE Set size of symbol in the ELF symbol table TYPE Set symbol type in the ELF symbol table WEAK Mark symbol as weak Overview of data definition storage allocation directives Directive Description ALIGN Define alignment ASCII ASCIZ Define ASCII string without with ending NULL byte BS Define block storage initialized BSB Define byte block storage initialized BSBIT Define bit block storage in bit addressable data BSW BSL Define word long block storage initialized DB Define constant byte DBIT Define constant bit DS Define storage DW DL Define a word long constant FLOAT DOUBLE Define a float double constant 4 16 User s Manual Overview of macro and conditional assembly directives Directive Description DUP Duplicate seguence of source lines DUPA Duplicate seguence with arguments DUPC Duplicate seguence with characters DUPF Duplicate seguence in loop ENDM End of macro or duplicate seguence EXITM Exit macro IF ELIF ELSE END
76. anguage 3 31 3 11 SWITCH STATEMENT The TASKING C compiler supports three ways of code generation for a switch statement a jump chain linear switch a jump table or a lookup table A jump chain is comparable with an if else if else if else construction A jump table is a table filled with target addresses for each possible switch value The switch argument is used as an index within this table A lookup table is a table filled with a value to compare the switch argument with and a target address to jump to A binary search lookup is performed to select the correct target address By default the compiler will automatically choose the most efficient switch implementation based on code and data size and execution speed You can influence the selection of the switch method with compiler option t tradeoff which determines the speed size tradeoff It is obvious that especially for large switch statements the jump table approach executes faster than the lookup table approach Also the jump table has a predictable behavior in execution speed No matter the switch argument every case is reached in the same execution time However when the case labels are distributed far apart the jump table becomes sparse wasting code memory The compiler will not use the jump table method when the waste becomes excessive With a small number of cases the jump chain method can be faster in execution and shorter in size How to overrule the
77. ar uses the same register as ovar the constraint O is used which indicates that ivar also corresponds with 960 int ovar void invert int ivar __asm not w 0 r ovar O ivar void main void invert 255 C Language 3 25 Generated assembly code _invert not w RO mov w RO ovar _main mov w 255 R0 jsr _invert Example 6 inlining assembly functions Because you can use any assembly instruction with the __ asm keyword you can use the __ asm keyword to perform tasks that have no eguivalence in C By inlining such a function rather than calling it you can create fast functions to perform tasks that have no eguivalent in C In fact this way you create your own intrinsic functions First write a function with assembly in the body using the keyword __ asm We use the add routine from Example 3 Next make sure that the function is inlined rather than being called You can do this with the function qualifier inline This qualifier is discussed in more detail in section 3 12 3 Inlining Functions int a b result inline void my add void __asm add w 1 2 n t mov w 32 20 m result r a r b void main void call to function my_add my add When you call this function from within your C source the next assembly code will be inlined not called _Main 7 _ my add code is inlined here mov w _b RO mov w _a R1 add w R1 RO m
78. ary Functions in Chapter Libraries of the Reference Manual for an extensive description of all standard C library functions 3 14 2 PRINTF AND SCANF FORMATTING ROUTINES The C library functions printf fprintf vfprintf vsprintf call one single function _ doprint that deals with the format string and arguments The same applies to all scanf type functions which call the function _doscan and also for the wprintf and wscanf type functions which call dowprint and _ dowscan respectively The C library contains three versions of these routines int long and long long versions If you use floating point the formatter function for floating point dof1t or _dowflt is called Depending on the formatting arguments you use the correct routine is used from the library Of course the larger the version of the routine the larger your produced code will be Note that when you call any of the printf scanf routines indirect the arguments are not known and always the long long version with floating point support is used from the library 3 46 User s Manual Example include lt stdio h gt long L void main void printf This is a long ld n L The linker extracts the long version without floating point support from the library 3 14 3 REBUILDING LIBRARIES If you have manually changed one of the standard C library functions you need to recompile the standard C libraries Weak symbols a
79. ass this macro explicitly to nested mkm16c s but it is also available to these invocations as an environment variable PRODDIR Holds the name of the directory where mkm16c is installed You can use this macro to refer to files belonging to the product for example a library source file DOPRINT PRODDIR lib src doprint c When mkm16c is installed in the directory cm16c bin this line expands to DOPRINT cml6c lib src doprint c Using the Utilities 9 19 SHELLCMD Holds the default list of commands which are local to the SHELL If a rule is an invocation of one of these commands a SHELL is automatically spawned to handle it TMP_CCPROG Holds the name of the control program ccm16c If this macro and the TMP_CCOPT macro are set and the command line argument list for the control program exceeds 127 characters then mkm16c creates a temporary file with the command line arguments mkm16c calls the control program with the temporary file as command input file TMP_CCOPT Holds f the control program option that tells it to read options from a file This macro is only available for the Windows command prompt version of mkm16c This macro translates to a dollar sign Thus you can use in the makefile to represent a single There are several dynamically maintained macros that are useful as abbreviations within rules It is best not to define them explicitly The basename of the current target lt
80. assembly warnings for C show c compilations warnings C Language ISO C standard 90 or 99 default 99 iso 90 99 Language extensions Aflag Allow C style comments in C source Ap Check assignment constant string to Ax non constant string pointer Treat external definitions as static static Single precision floating point F C Language Treat C files as C files force c Force C compilation and linking force c User s Manual Description Option Force invocation of C muncher Force invocation of C prelinker Show the list of object files handled by the C prelinker Copy C prelink ii files from outside the current directory Use only C prelink files in the current directory Remove C instantiation flags after prelinking Enable C exception handling C instantiation mode C instantiation directory C instantiation file Disable automatic C instantiation Allow multiple instantiations in a single object file force munch force prelink list object files prelink copy if nonlocal prelink local only prelink remove instantiation flags exceptions instantiate type instantiation dir dir instantiation file file no auto instantiation no one instantiat ion per object Preprocessing Define preprocessor macro Dmacro def Remove preprocessor macro Umacro S
81. bject file Using the Linker 8 11 8 3 CALLING THE LINKER EDE uses a makefile to build your entire project This means that you cannot run only the linker However you can set options specific for the linker After you have build your project the output files of the linking step are available in your project directory unless you specified an alternative output directory in the Build Options dialog To link your program click either one of the following buttons Builds your entire project but only updates files that are out of date or have been changed since the previous build which saves time iii Builds your entire project unconditionally All steps necessary mm to obtain the final e1f file are performed To get access to the linker options 1 From the Project menu select Project Options Tbe Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the Linker entry Select the subentries and set the options in the various pages Tbe command line variant is sbown simultaneously The following linker options are available User s Manual EDE options Command line Output Format Output formats o filename format addr_size space c basename format addr size Libraries Link default C libraries Rescan libraries to solve unresolved exernals Link case sensitive required for C language lx no rescan no option case insensitive Optimization Use a firs
82. ble disable specific optimizations Optimization pragmas If you specify a certain optimization all code in the module is subject to that optimization Within the C source file you can overrule the compiler options for optimizations with pragma optimize flag and pragma endoptimize Nesting is allowed pragma optimize e Enable expression 3 simplification C source pragma optimize c Enable common expression elimination Expression C source simplification still enabled pragma endoptimize Disable common expression sane elimination pragma endoptimize Disable expression simplification The compiler optimizes the code between the pragma pair as specified Using the Compiler 5 7 You can enable or disable the optimizations described below The command line option for each optimization is given in brackets d gt See also option O optimize in section 4 1 Compiler Options of Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual Generic optimizations frontend Common subexpression elimination CSE option Oc OC The compiler detects repeated use of the same sub expression Such a common expression is replaced by a variable that is initialized with the value of the expression to avoid recomputation This method is called common subexpression elimination CSE Expression simplification option Oe OE Multiplication by 0 or 1 and additions or subtractions of 0 are removed Such use
83. can use the deb file Otherwise you can install the product from the tar gz file RPM Installation 1 In most situations you have to be root to install RPM packages so either login as root or use the su command 2 Insert the CD ROM into the CD ROM drive Mount the CD ROM on a directory for example cdrom See the Linux manual pages about mount for details 3 Go to the directory on which the CD ROM is mounted cd cdrom 4 To install or upgrade all products at once issue the following command rpm U SW rpm This will install or upgrade all products in the default installation directory usr local Every RPM package will create a single directory in the installation directory The RPM packages are relocatable so it is possible to select a different installation directory with the prefix option For instance when you want to install the products in opt use the following command rpm U prefix opt SW rpm For Red Hat 6 0 users The prefix option does not work with RPM version 3 0 included in the Red Hat 6 0 distribution Please upgrade to RPM verion 3 0 3 or higher or use the tar gz file installation described in the next section if you want to install in a non standard directory Software Installation and Configuration 1 5 Debian Installation 1 Login as a user Be sure you have read write and execute permissions in the installation directory Otherwise login as root or use the s
84. cated to solve a particular type of performance tuning problem Performance problems can be solved by e Identifying time consuming algorithms and rewrite the code using a more time efficient algorithm e Identifying time consuming functions and select the appropriate compiler optimizations for these functions for example enable loop unrolling or function inlining e Identifying time consuming loops and add the appropriate pragmas to enable the compiler to further optimize these loops A profiler helps you to find and identify the time consuming constructs and provides you this way with valuable information to optimize your application TASKING employs various schemes for collecting profiling data depending on the capabilities of the target system and different information needs 6 4 User s Manual 6 1 1 THREE METHODS OF PROFILING There are several methods of profiling recording by an instruction set simulator profiling using the debugger and profiling with code instrumentation techniques Each method has its advantages and disadvantages Profiling by an instruction set simulator On way way to gather profiling information is built into the instruction set simulator ISS The ISS records the time consumed by each instruction that is executed The debugger then retrieves this information and correlates the time spent for individual instructions to C source statements Advantages it gives cycle accurate in
85. ct is considered to point inside the object but dereferencing the pointer will be flagged by the bounds checking code 5 22 User s Manual Uninitialized pointers null pointer Uninitialized automatic pointers are initialized to a special value that triggers a run time error when used Dereferencing or updating a null pointer will also trigger a run time error Considerations e Sub objects such as structure members or objects from a memory pool in the application are not checked for overflow e An offset calculation in a static pointer initializer is performed by the assembler and cannot be checked e Pointers to function parameters cannot be checked Unhandled case in a switch This option reports an unhandled case value in a switch without a default part It simply completes any switch without a default part with an extra function call This has little impact on the execution speed To avoid this type of run time error add an empty default part to the case switch when the switch is not supposed to have a case for every possible value Malloc checks This option uses wrappers around the functions malloc realloc and free that will check for common dynamic memory allocation errors like e buffer overflow e write to freed memory e multiple calls to free e passing an invalid pointer to free For this check some additional code from the library is extracted but it has minimal impact on on your application c
86. d and decrease code size Optimize callxreturn to jump option Oz OZ A function call which is immediately followed by a function return is replaced by a jump With this optimization a call trace is no longer possible 5 3 1 OPTIMIZE FOR SIZE OR SPEED d gt You can tell the compiler to focus on execution speed or code size during optimizations You can do this by specifying a size speed trade off level from 0 speed to 4 size This trade off does not turn optimization phases on or off Instead its level is a weight factor that is used in the different optimization phases to influence the heuristics The higher the level the more the compiler focuses on code size optimization To specify the size speed trade off optimization level 1 From the Project menu select Project Options Tbe Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the C Compiler entry and select Optimization 3 Select one of the options Optimize for size or Optimize for speed See also option t tradeoff in section 4 1 Compiler Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual 5 9 5 10 5 4 User s Manual CALLING THE COMPILER EDE uses a makefile to build your entire project This means that you cannot run the compiler only If you compile a single C source file from within EDE the file is also automatically assembled However you can set options specific for the compiler After you have build your project the outpu
87. d configuration for conformance with the reguired rules in the MISRA C guidelines It is also possible to read a MISRA C configuration from an external file 4 Optional In the MISRA C Rules entry specify the individual rules Ee cml6c misrac all number number See compiler option misrac in section 4 1 Compiler Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manudl See linker option misra c report in section 4 3 Linker Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual Using the Compiler 5 19 5 8_ C COMPILER DIAGNOSTICS At compile time the cm16c compiler reports the following types of error messages F Fatal errors After a fatal error the compiler immediately aborts compilation E Errors Errors are reported but the compiler continues compilation No output files are produced unless you have set the compiler option keep output files the resulting output file may be incomplete W Warnings Warning messages do not result into an erroneous assembly output file They are meant to draw your attention to assumptions of the compiler for a situation which may not be correct You can control warnings in the C Compiler Diagnostics page of the Project Project Options menu compiler option w I Information Information messages are always preceded by an error message Information messages give extra information about the error S System errors System errors occur when i
88. d on stdout which is connected to the CrossView Terminal Window if an run time error is detected Every message is preceded by the code address where the error was detected The source file name and line number are not printed because that would increase the code and data size To obtain the source position you can either lookup the address in the map file or set a breakpoint on __runtime error in the debugger to back trace the error Run time error checking can be done at application wide scope or at module scope Only malloc checks are always executed at application wide scope The following run time checks are available Bounds checking Bounds checking verifies all pointer operations to detect buffer overflows and other illegal operations The bounds checking code keeps track of the bounds of all objects that may have their address taken somewhere in the application Pointer arithmetic When a pointer is incremented or decremented the old and new values should point to the same object it would be an error if the new pointer value is outside the current object Likewise comparing or subtracting pointers to different objects results in undefined behavior according to the ISO C standard and will be flagged as well Dereferencing invalid pointer The ISO C standard allows a pointer to point to the first byte after an object but dereferencing such a pointer is an error Therefore a pointer to the first address after an obje
89. default switch method You can overrule the compiler chosen switch method with a pragma pragma linear switch force jump chain code pragma jump switch force jump table code pragma lookup switch force lookup table code pragma auto switch let the compiler decide the switch method used Pragma auto_switch is also the default of the compiler 3 32 User s Manual 3 12 FUNCTIONS 3 12 1 PARAMETER PASSING A lot of execution time of an application is spent transferring parameters between functions The fastest parameter transport is via registers Therefore function parameters are first passed via registers If no more registers are available for a parameter the parameter is passed via the stack The table below shows the register usage when parameters of several types are passed Parameter Type Parameter Number 1 2 3 4 5 16 __ bit _Bool 0 RO 1 RO 2 RO 3 RO 4 RO 15 RO char ROL ROH 8 bit struct ROL ROH short int RO R2 R1 R3 16 bit struct RO R2 R1 R3 16 bit pointer A0 A1 32 bit pointer A1A0 long R2R0 R3R1 long long R3R1R2RO float R2RO R3R1 float _Imaginary float _ Complex R3R1R2RO double R3R1R2RO double _Imaginary Table 3 7 Register usage for parameter passing All parameters of a variable argument list function are always passed over the stack Parameters are pushed in reverse order so all ISO C macros defin
90. des language constructs to easily describe single core and heterogeneous or homogeneous multi core systems The board specification describes all characteristics of your target board s system buses memory devices I O sub systems and cores that are of interest to the linker Based on the information provided in the board specification the linker can for each core e convert a logical address to an offset within a memory device e locate sections in physical memory e maintain an overall view of the used and free physical memory within the whole system while locating Using the Linker 8 23 Tbe section layout definition optional The optional section layout definition enables you to exactly control where input sections are located Features are provided such as the ability to place sections at a given address to place sections in a given order and to overlay code and or data sections Example Skeleton of a Linker Script File A linker script file that defines a derivative X based on the M16C architecture its external memory and how sections are located in memory may have the following skeleton architecture M16C Specification of the M16C core architecture Written by Altium derivative X derivative name is arbitrary Specification of the derivative Written by Altium core M16C always specify the core architecture M16C bus data_bus internal bus maps to data_b
91. dler Specify name of output file Rename sections Treat external definitions as static Display version header only align compact max size value error file file f file inline inline max incr value inline max size value k max call depth value n noclear noframe 0 file Rmem name static V Table 5 4 Compiler options only available on the command line Ee The invocation syntax on the command line is cml6c option file The input file must be a C source file c or ic cml6c test c Using the Compiler 5 15 This compiles the file test c and generates the file test src which serves as input for the assembler d gt For a complete overview of all options with extensive description see section 4 1 Compiler Options of Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual 5 5 HOW THE COMPILER SEARCHES INCLUDE FILES When you use include files you can specify their location in several ways The compiler searches the specified locations in the following order 1 The absolute pathname if specified in the include statement Or if no path or a relative path is specified the same directory as the source file This is only possible for include files that are enclosed in amp This first step is not done for include files enclosed in lt gt 2 The directories that are specified in the Project Directorie
92. e selected Getting Started 2 11 Project Properties Add a new project to the project space 4 In the Project Properties dialog click on the Add new project to project space button see previous figure Tbe Add New Project to Project Space dialog appears Add New Project to Project Space getstartgetstart pjt M Ej BOG sye makene 2 12 GETTING STARTED User s Manual 5 Give your project a name for example getstart getstart pjt a directory name to hold your project files is optional and click OK A project file with the name getstart pjt is created in the directory getstart which is also created The Project Properties dialog box appears with the project selected Project Properties xl lt Default Settings gt b ea ear Add new file Add existing files Scan existing files Add new files to the project Now you can add all the files you want to be part of your project 6 Click on the Add new file to project button The Add New File to Project dialog appears Add New File to Project IM Greate new window Browse _Cencel _ Heb Getting Started 2 13 7 Enter a new filename for example hello c and click OK A new empty file is created and added to the project Repeat steps 6 and 7 if you want to add more files 8 Click OK Tbe new project is now open EDE loads the new file s in the editor in separate d
93. e 4 27 The expression must evaluate to an absolute integer and cannot contain forward references If expression evaluates to zero the IF condition is considered FALSE Any non zero result of expression is considered as TRUE d gt For a detailed description of these directives see section 3 3 Assembler Directives in Chapter Assembly Language of the Reference Manual User s Manual 4 28 49VDn9NV1 A18W3SSV USING THE COMPILER ail TASKING M diLdVHO Using the Compiler 5 3 5 1 INTRODUCTION EDE uses a makefile to build your entire project from C source till the final ELF DWARF object file which serves as input for the debugger Although in EDE you cannot run the compiler separately from the other tools this chapter discusses the options that you can specify for the compiler On the command line it is possible to call the compiler separately from the other tools However it is recommended to use the control program ccm16c for command line invocations of the toolchain see section 9 2 Control Program in Chapter Using the Utilities With the control program it is possible to call the entire toolchain with only one command line The compiler takes the following files for input and output Csourcefile c C source file hand coded ic C compiler cm16c rp error messages err assembly file Src Figure 5 1 C compiler This chapter first describes the co
94. e CA Reference Manual fifth edition by Samual P Harbison and Guy L Steele Jr 2002 Prentice Hall e The C Programming Language second edition by B Kernighan and D Ritchie 1988 Prentice Hall e ISO IEC 9899 1999 E Programming languages C ISO IEC See also http www ansi org e DSP C An Extension to ISO IEC 9899 1999 E Programming languages C TASKING TK0071 14 MISRA C e Guidelines for the Use of the C Language in Vehicle Based Software MIRA limited 1998 See also http www misra org uk e MISRA C 2004 Guidelines for the use of the C Language in critical systems MIRA limited 2004 See also http www misra c com TASKING Tools e M16C C Compiler Assembler Linker Reference Manual TASKING MB299 024 00 00 e MI16C C Compiler User s Manual TASKING MA299 012 00 00 e M16C CrossView Pro Debugger User s Manual TASKING MA299 041 00 00 M16C e M16C Group Specification Renesas e M16C 60 20 Series Software Manual Renesas SOFTWARE INSTALLATION AND CONFIGURATION ail TASKING M diLdVHO Software Installation and Configuration 1 3 1 1 INTRODUCTION This chapter guides you through the procedures to install the software on a Windows system or on a Linux or UNIX host The software for Windows has two faces a graphical interface Embedded Development Environment and a command line interface The Linux and UNIX software has only a command line interface After
95. e Installation Using the Utilities 9 9 9 3 MAKE UTILITY If you are working with large quantities of files or if you need to build several targets it is rather time consuming to call the individual tools to compile assemble link and locate all your files You save already a lot of typing if you use the control program ccm16c and define an options file You can even create a batch file or script that invokes the control program for each target you want to create But with these methods all files are completely compiled assembled linked and located to obtain the target file even if you changed just one C source This may demand a lot of CPU time on your host The make utility mkm16c is a tool to maintain update and reconstruct groups of programs The make utility looks which files are out of date and only recreates these files to obtain the updated target Make process In order to build a target the make utility needs the following input e the target it should build specified as argument on the command line e the rules to build the target stored in a file usually called makefile LAN In addition the make utility also reads the file mkm16c mk which contains predefined rules and macros See section 9 3 2 Writing a Makefile The makefile contains the relationships among your files called dependencies and the commands that are necessary to create each of the files called rules Typically the absolute object file
96. e executables are located to the existing path information Separate pathnames with a semicolon For example c Xcm16cXbin Click on the OK button to accept the changes and close the dialogs Example for UNIX Enter the following line C shell setenv PATH S PATH usr local cml6c bin 1 12 User s Manual 1 4 LICENSING TASKING PRODUCTS TASKING products are protected with license management software FLEXIm To use a TASKING product you must install the license key provided by TASKING for the type of license purchased You can run TASKING products with a node locked license or with a floating license When you order a TASKING product determine which type of license you need UNIX products only have a floating license Node locked license PC only This license type locks the software to one specific PC so you can use the product on that particular PC only Floating license This license type manages the use of TASKING product licenses among users at one site This license type does not lock the software to one specific PC or workstation but it requires a network The software can then be used on any computer in the network The license specifies the number of users who can use the software simultaneously A system allocating floating licenses is called a license server A license manager running on the license server keeps track of the number of users 1 4 1 OBTAINING LICENSE INFORMATION Before you can
97. e following source code that calls the macro SWAP_SYM after the argument AREG has been set to 0 and BREG has been set to 1 AREG SET 0 BREG SET 1 SWAP_SYM AREG BREG If you want to replace the arguments with the value of AREG and BREG rather than with the literal strings AREG and BREG you can use the operator and modify the macro as follows SWAP_ SYM MACRO REG1 REG2 swap memory contents XCHG W R REG1 R REG2 ENDM The macro first expands as follows XCHG W R AREG R BREG Then AREG is replaced by 0 and BREG is replaced by 1 XCHG W R O R 1 Because of the concatenation operator the strings are concatenated XCHG W RO R1 Hex Value Operator The percent sign is similar to the standard decimal value operator except that it returns the hexadecimal value of a symbol Consider the following macro definition GEN_LAB MACRO LAB VAL STMT LABNSVAL STMT ENDM 4 24 User s Manual A symbol with the name NUM is set to 10 and the macro is called with NUM as argument NUM SET 10 GEN LAB HEX NUM NOP The macro expands as follows HEXA NOP The VAL argument is replaced by the character A which represents the hexadecimal value 10 of the argument VAL Argument String Operator To generate a literal string enclosed by single quotes you must use the argument string operator in the macro definition Consider the following macro definition STR MAC MACRO STRING DB S
98. e possibility to create overlaying sections The linker accepts multiple LSL files You can use the specifications of the M16C and R8C architectures that Altium has supplied in the include 1s1 directory Do not change these files If you use a different memory layout than described in the LSL file supplied for the target core you must specify this in a separate LSL file and pass both the LSL file that describes the core architecture and your LSL file that contains the memory specification to the linker Next you may want to specify how sections should be located and overlaid You can do this in the same file or in another LSL file LSL has its own syntax In addition you can use the standard ANSI C preprocessor keywords because the linker sends the script file first to the C preprocessor before it starts interpreting the script 8 20 User s Manual The complete syntax is described in Chapter 7 Linker Script Language in the Reference Manudl 8 6 2 EDE AND LSL In EDE you can specify the size of the stack and heap the physical memory attached to the processor identify that particular address ranges are reserved and specify which sections are located where in memory EDE translates your input into an LSL file that is stored in the project directory under the name project ls1 and passes this file to the linker If you want to learn more about LSL you can inspect the generated file project lsl To change tbe LSL settings 1
99. e return type of functions A struct containing bit fields cannot be used for this purpose for example because the struct is aligned at a byte boundary Unlike the _Bool type the __ bit type is aligned on a bit boundary The following rules apply to __ bit type variables e A _ bit type variable is always unsigned e A_ bit type variable can be exchanged with all other type variables The compiler generates the correct conversion A __ bit type variable is like a boolean Therefore if you convert an int type variable to a __ bit type variable it becomes 1 true if the integer is not equal to 0 and 0 false if the integer is 0 The next two C source lines have the same effect bit variable int_variable bit_variable int_variable 1 0 e Pointer to bit is allowed but you cannot take the address of a bit on the stack e The _ bit type is allowed as a structure member However a bit structure can only contain members of type __ bit and you cannot push a bit structure on the stack or return a bit structure via a function e A union of a _ bit structure and another type is not allowed e A _ bit type variable is allowed as a parameter of a function A _ bit type variable is allowed as a return type of a function e A bit typed expression is allowed as switch expression e The sizeof ofa _ bittypeisl e Global or static __ bit type variable can be initialized e A __ bit type variable can be declared volatile 3 4 MEMORY Q
100. e size of an address space is to 2N with N the number of bits used to encode the addresses The relation of an address space with another address space can be one of the following e one space is a subset of the other These are often used for small absolute and relative addressing Using the Linker 8 25 e the addresses in the two address spaces represent different locations so they do not overlap This means the core must have separate sets of address lines for the address spaces For example in Harvard architectures we can identify at least a code and a data memory space Address spaces even nested can have different minimal addressable units MAU alignment restrictions and page sizes Tbe M16C architecture in LSL notation The best way to program the architecture definition is to start with a drawing The following figure shows a part of the M16C architecture space far bus data_bus RE an space near mau 8 id 1 width 8 mau 8 Lp 64k id 2 mau 8 1M Figure 8 2 Scheme of part of tbe M16C architecture The figure shows two address spaces called near and far The address space near is a subset of the address space far All address spaces have attributes like a number that identifies the logical space id a MAU size and an alignment In LSL notation the definition of these address spaces looks as follows space near id 1 mau 8 map src_offset 0x00
101. e this file before source Hfile Optimization Optimize speed by means of instruction alignment Oa OA on off Allow generic instructions Og OG Optimize instruction size Os OS Debug No debug information gAHLS Automatic HLL or assembly level debug information gs Custom debug information gflag Using the Assembler EDE options Command line List File Generate list file Custom list file generation options Generate section summary in list file Diagnostics Report all warnings Suppress all warnings Suppress specific warnings Treat warnings as errors no option w W wnum num warnings as errors Miscellaneous Generate section summary Case sensitive identifiers Additional assembler options tc no option c options Table 7 2 Assembler options The following options are available on the command line and you can set them in EDE through the Additional assembler options field in the Miscellaneous page Description Command line Display invocation syntax Emit local symbols Redirect diagnostic messages to a file Read options from file Labels are by default local default global Keep output file after errors Select TASKING preprocessor or no preprocessor Specify name of output file Verbose information Display version header only emit locals error file file f file Table 7 3 Assembler
102. eads to faster and smaller code The cm16c compiler offers the option to compile several C modules in one single pass this is called MIL linking This makes several compiler optimizations much more effective notably inlining and reverse inlining To enable MIL linking enable the option MIL linking compile multiple C files simultaneously on the Optimization page of the C Compiler options or choose Agressive all optimization cautious with inline assembly _ asm __asm statements are not analyzed by the compiler they are copied verbatim to the output assembly Because of this the compiler cannot optimize the surrounding code It is recommended to use plain C and intrinsic functions whenever possible 3 10 User s Manual 3 3_ DATA TYPES The TASKING C compiler for the M16C architecture supports the following data types Size Align Type Keyword bit bit Ranges Bit _ bit 1 1 Oor1 Boolean _Bool 1 8 Oor1 Character char 8 8 2 27 4 signed char unsigned char 8 8 0 28 1 Integral short i d short LU 16 8 16 215 215 1 int signed int nee aero short 16 8 16 0 216 4 unsigned int enum 1 8 0 or 1 8 8 16 2 27 4 16 8 16 215 2154 long 32 8 16 281 2314 signed long long long signed 64 8 16 263 _2683_j long long unsigned long 32 8 16 0 232 4 ee 64 8 16 o 264_4 ong long Pointer pointer to 13 Ms 16 8 16 0 213 4 pointer to 16 8
103. ed error messages X Table 9 3 Overview of make utility options For a complete list and description of all make utility options see section 4 5 Make Utility Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual 9 3 2 WRITING A MAKEFILE 6 In addition to the standard makefile makefile the make utility always reads the makefile mkm16c mk before other inputs This system makefile contains implicit rules and predefined macros that you can use in the makefile makefile With the option r Do not read the mkm16c mk file you can prevent the make utility from reading mkm16c mk The default name of the makefile is makefile in the current directory If on a UNIX system this file is not found the file Makefile is used as the default If you want to use other makefiles use the option f my_makefile Using the Utilities 9 13 The makefile can contain a mixture of targets and dependencies e rules macro definitions or functions e comment lines include lines e export lines To continue a line on the next line terminate it with a backslash this comment line is continued on the next line If a line must end with a backslash add an empty macro this comment line ends with a backslash EMPTY this is a new line Targets and dependencies The basis of the makefile is a set of targets dependencies and rules A target entry in the makefile has the following format target depe
104. ed in stdarg h can be applied C Language Exambple witb five arguments funcl char a long b a first parameter is passed in register ROL b second parameter is passed in registers R3R1 c third parameter is passed via the stack d fourth parameter is passed in register R2 e fifth parameter is passed in register ROH Example with variable argument function printf char format format first parameter is passed in register AO all other parameters are passed via the stack 3 12 2 FUNCTION RETURN TYPES The C compiler uses registers to store C function return values depending on the function return types long c int d char e double _Imaginary Return type Register __ bit Bool C char ROL 8 bit struct ROL short int RO 16 bit struct RO 16 bit pointer AO 32 bit pointer A1A0 long R2RO long long R3R1R2RO float R2RO float _Imaginary float _ Complex R3R1R2RO double R3R1R2RO double _ Complex on the stack Table 3 8 Register usage for function return types 3 33 3 34 User s Manual 3 12 3 INLINING FUNCTIONS INLINE You can use the inline keyword to tell the compiler to inline the function body instead of calling the function Use the __ noinline keyword to tell the compiler not to inline the function body Normally you must define inline functions in the same source mod
105. er command line option The advantage of using a directive is that with such a directive you can overrule the assembler option for a particular part of the code Directives of this kind are called controls A typical example is to tell the assembler with an option to generate a list file while with the controls LIST ON and LIST OFF you overrule this option for a part of the code that you do not want to appear in the list file Controls always appear on a separate line and start with a sign in the first column User s Manual The following controls are available Assembly listing controls Miscellaneous controls Each assembler directive or control has its own syntax You can use assembler directives and controls in the assembly code as pseudo instructions 4 8 1 OVERVIEW OF ASSEMBLER DIRECTIVES The following tables provide an overview of all assembler directives For a detailed description see section 3 3 2 Detailed Description of Assembler Directives in Chapter Assembly Language of the Reference Manual Overview of assembly control directives Directive Description COMMENT Start comment lines You cannot use this directive in IF ELSE ENDIF constructs and MACRO DUP definitions DEFINE Define substitution string DEFSECT Define section name type and attributes END End of source program FAIL Programmer generated error message INCLUDE Include file MSG Programmer generated message RADIX Ch
106. er must know its start address its size and whether the memory is read write accessible RAM or read only accessible ROM How and where code and data should be placed in the physical memory Embedded systems can have complex memory systems If for example on chip and off chip memory devices are available the code and data located in internal memory is typically accessed faster and with dissipating less power To improve the performance of an application specific code and data sections should be located in on chip memory By writing your own LSL file you gain full control over the locating process The underlying hardware architecture of the target processor Using the Linker To perform its task the linker must have a model of the underlying hardware architecture of the processor you are using For example the linker must know how to translate an address used within the object file a logical address into an offset in a particular memory device a physical address In most linkers this model is hard coded in the executable and can not be modified For the Ikm16c linker this hardware model is described in the linker script file This solution is chosen to support configurable cores that are used in system on chip designs When you want to write your own linker script file you can use the standard linker script files with architecture descriptions delivered with the product d gt See also section 8 6 Controlling the Link
107. er with a Script 8 2 3 LINKER OPTIMIZATIONS During the linking and locating phase the linker looks for opportunities to optimize the object code Both code size and execution speed can be optimized To enable or disable optimizations 1 From the Project menu select Project Options The Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the Linker entry and select Optimization You can enable or disable the optimizations described below The command line option for each optimization is given in brackets See also option O optimize in section 4 3 Linker Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manudl First fit decreasing option Ol OL When the physical memory is fragmented or when address spaces are nested it may be possible that a given application cannot be located although the size of the available physical memory is larger than the sum of the section sizes Enable the first fit decreasing optimization when this occurs and re link your application 8 10 User s Manual The linker s default behavior is to place sections in the order that is specified in the LSL file This also applies to sections within an unrestricted group If a memory range is partially filled and a section must be located that is larger than the remainder of this range then the section and all subseguent sections are placed in a next memory range As a result of this gaps occur at the end of a memory range When the first fit decreasi
108. ernal memory that may be shared between processors A reference to a symbol for which the linker did not find a definition yet Table 8 1 Glossary of terms 8 6 User s Manual 8 2 1 PHASE 1 LINKING The linker takes one or more relocatable object files and or libraries as input A relocatable object file as generated by the assembler contains the following information Header information Overall information about the file such as the code size name of the source file it was assembled from and creation date e Object code Binary code and data divided into various named sections Sections are contiguous chunks of code or data that have to be placed in specific parts of the memory The program addresses start at zero for each section in the object file e Symbols Some symbols are exported defined within the file for use in other files Other symbols are imported used in the file but not defined external symbols Generally these symbols are names of routines or names of data objects e Relocation information A list of places with symbolic references that the linker has to replace with actual addresses When in the code an external symbol a symbol defined in another file or in a library is referenced the assembler does not know the symbol s size and address Instead the assembler generates a call to a preliminary relocatable address usually 0000 while stating the symbol name e Debug informat
109. erwise it returns an exit status of 0 Options of the make utility The following make utility options are available Description Option Display options Display version header V Verbose Print makefile lines while being read D DD Display time comparisons which indicate a target is out of date d dd Display current date and time time Verbose option show commands without executing dry run n Do not show commands before execution s Do not build only indicate whether target is up to date g 9 12 db User s Manual Description Option Input files Use makefile instead of the standard makefile makefile f makefile Change to directory before reading the makefile G path Read options from file m file Do not read the mkm16c mk file r Process Always rebuild target without checking whether it is out of date a Run as a child process C Environment variables override macro definitions e Do not remove temporary files K On error only stop rebuilding current target k Overrule the option k only stop rebuilding current target S Make all target files precious p Touch the target files instead of rebuilding them t Treat target as if it has just been reconstructed W target Error messages Redirect error messages and verbose messages to a file err file Ignore error codes returned by commands i Redirect messages to standard out instead of standard error W Show extend
110. es of your project from scratch regardless of their date time stamp you can perform a rebuild e Click on the Execute Rebuild command button The following button is the execute Rebuild button which is located in the toolbar 2 8 HOW TO BUILD YOUR APPLICATION ON THE COMMAND LINE If you are not using EDE you can build your entire application on the command line The easiest way is to use the control program ccm16c 1 In a text editor write the file hello c with the following contents include lt stdio h gt void main void printf Hello World An 2 Build the file getstart elf ccml6c ogetstart elf hello c v Tbe control program calls all tools in the toolchain The v option shows all the individual steps The resulting file is getstart elf Getting Started 2 19 2 9 DEBUG GETSTART ELF The application getstart e1f is the final result ready for execution and or debugging The debugger uses getstart elf for debugging but needs symbolic debug information for the debugging process This information must be included in getstart elf and therefore you need to compile and assemble hello c once again ccml6c g ogetstart elf hello c Now you can start the debugger with getstart elf and see how it executes Start CrossView Pro e Click on the Debug application button El CrossView Pro is launched Cross View Pro will automatically download the file getstart elf for debugging d
111. essing Lines containing ifdef ifndef else or endif are used for conditional processing of the makefile They are used in the following way ifdef macro name if lines else else lines endif The 7f lines and else lines may contain any number of lines or text of any kind even other ifdef ifndef else and endif lines or no lines at all The else line may be omitted along with the else lines following it 9 22 User s Manual First the macro name after the if command is checked for definition If the macro is defined then the 1f ies are interpreted and the else ines are discarded if present Otherwise the 7 ines are discarded and if there is an else line the else lines are interpreted but if there is no else line then no lines are interpreted When using the ifndef line instead of ifdef the macro is tested for not being defined These conditional lines can be nested up to 6 levels deep d gt See also Defining Macros in section 4 5 Make Utility Options in Chapter Tools Options of the Reference Manual Comment lines Anything after a 7 is considered as a comment and is ignored If the is inside a guoted string it is not treated as a comment Completely blank lines are ignored test src test c this is comment and is cml6c test c ignored by the make utility Include lines An include line is used to include the text of another makefile like including a h file in a C source Macros in the name
112. exit status of 0 Macro definitions A macros is a symbol names that is replaced with it s definition before the makefile is executed Although the macro name can consist of lower case or upper case characters upper case is an accepted convention The general form of a macro definition is 9 18 User s Manual MACRO text and more text Spaces around the egual sign are not significant To use a macro you must access it s contents MACRO you can read this as MACRO the contents of macro MACRO If the macro name is a single character the parentheses are optional Note that the expansion is done recursively so the body of a macro may contain other macros These macros are expanded when the macro is actually used not at the point of definition FOOD EAT and DRINK EAT meat and or vegetables DRINK water export FOOD The macro FOOD is expanded as meat and or vegetables and water at the moment it is used in the export line Predefined Macros MAKE Holds the value mkm16c Any line which uses MAKE temporarily overrides the option n Show commands without executing just for the duration of the one line This way you can test nested calls to MAKE with the option n MAKEFLAGS Holds the set of options provided to mkm16c except for the options f and d If this macro is exported to set the environment variable MAKEFLAGS the set of options is processed before any command line options You can p
113. f Contents SOFTWARE INSTALLATION AND CONFIGURATION 1 1 11 Introduction FFF FF FE FFR RAO 1 3 1 2 Software Installation 00 00 eee 1 3 1 2 1 Installation for Windows 00 00 cece a 1 3 1 2 2 Installation for Linux 00 0 eee 1 4 1 2 3 Installation for UNIX Hosts 0 0 00 FFF eee 1 6 13 Software Configuration VFF a u 131 Configuring the Embedded Development Environment 1 7 1 3 2 Configuring the Command Line Environment 1 9 1 4 Licensing TASKING Products Fa 1 12 1 4 1 Obtaining License Information 1 12 1 4 2 Installing Node Locked Licenses 1 13 1 4 3 Installing Floating Licenses 00 0 0 cee eee 1 14 1 4 4 Modifying the License File Location 1 16 1 4 5 How to Determine the Host ID 1 17 1 4 6 How to Determine the Host Name 1 17 GETTING STARTED 2 1 21 atn ue a ue L6 a A EF FC ON CH EN RE a babes 2 3 22 Working With Projects in EDE 2 7 2 3 Start EDE osc geek DG HA ie eek howe hehe 2 8 2 4 Using the Sample Projects VVY Y eee 29 2 5 Create a New Project Space with a Project 2 10 2 6 Set Options for the Tools in the Toolchain 2 14 2 7 Build your Application 00 00 00 a 2 17 2 8 How to Build Your Application on the Command Line 2 18 2 9 Debug getstart elf precie eei eee 2 19 C LANGUAGE
114. formation with extreme fine granularity the executed code is identical to the non profiled code Disadvantages the method requires an ISS as execution environment Profiling with the debugger gb The second method of profiling is built into the debugger You specify which functions you want to profile The debugger places breakpoints on the function entry and all its exit addresses and measures the time spent in the function and its callees Advantages the executed code is identical to the non profiled code Disadvantage each time a profiling breakpoint is hit the target is stopped and control is passed to the debugger Although the debugger restarts the application immediately the application s performance is significantly reduced See Section Profiling in Chapter Special Features of the CrossView Pro Debugger User s Manual C Language 6 5 Profiling using code instrumentation technigues The TASKING compiler contains an option to add code to your application which takes care of the profiling process This is called code instrumentation The gathered profiling data is first stored in the target s memory and will be written to a file when the application finishes execution or when the function __ prof_cleanup is called Advantages it can give a complete call graph of the application annotated with the time spend in each function and basic block this profiling method is execution enviro
115. function interrupts are maskable which means that the interrupt can be enable or disabled by the interrupt enable flag I flag or that its interrupt priority can be changed by priority level Each maskable interrupt has an interrupt priority level This number 0 to 7 is set in the interrupt control register xxxIC by the interrupt control unit If multiple interrupts occur at the same time the interrupt reguest that has the highest priority is accepted A reguest is handled if the priority number is higher than the processor interrupt priority level IPL An interrupt service routine can be interrupted again by another interrupt request with a higher priority Interrupts with priority number 0 are never handled The M16C uses two interrupt vector tables for the hardware and software interrupts a relocatable vector table and a fixed vector table The interrupt vector contains the start address of the interrupt service routine With the following function gualifiers you can declare an interrupt handler using the relocatable or fixed vector table respectively _ interrupt _ interrupt fixed For an extensive description of the M16C interrupt system see chapter Overview of Interrupt in the M16C Group Specification Renesas C Language 3 39 3 12 6 1 DEFINING AN INTERRUPT SERVICE ROUTINE interrupt A function can be declared as an interrupt service routine with one of the following function qualifiers __interrupt vector
116. g errors can cause unexpected results Assembly Language Type Oper Name Description ator Bitwise amp AND Integer only yields bitwise AND OR Integer only yields bitwise OR exclusive OR Integer only yields bitwise exlusive OR Logical amp amp logical AND Returns an integer 1 if both operands are nonzero otherwise it returns an integer 0 II logical OR Returns an integer 1 if either of the operands is nonzero otherwise it returns an integer 1 Table 4 1 Assembly expression operators 4 7 BUILT IN ASSEMBLY FUNCTIONS The assembler has several built in functions to support data conversion string comparison and math computations You can use functions as terms in any expression Functions have the following syntax Syntax of an assembly function function_name argument argumeni Functions start with the character and have zero or more arguments and are always followed by opening and closing parentheses White space a blank or tab is not allowed between the function name and the opening parenthesis and between the comma separated arguments The built in assembler functions are grouped into the following types e Mathematical functions comprise among others transcendental random value and min max functions e String functions compare strings return the length of a string and return the position of a substring within a string e Macro functions ret
117. gister file cegcpu s r This is an include file written in C syntax which is shared by the compiler assembler and debugger Once the compiler reads an SFR file you can reference the special function registers SFR and bits within an SFR using symbols defined in the SFR file To specify the search path and include directories 1 From the Project menu select Directories The Directories dialog box appears 2 Fill in the directory path settings and click OK To access the compiler options 1 From the Project menu select Project Options The Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the C Compiler entry fill in the various pages and click OK to accept the compiler options The compiler command line equivalences of your EDE selections are shown simultaneously in the Options string box The following processor options are available EDE options Command line Processor Definition Select processor Ccpu Compile for R8C tiny instead of M16C 60 r8c Memory Internal memory EDE only Startup Code Add lt project gt _cstart src to your project EDE only Table 5 1 Processor options 5 12 The following project directories are available User s Manual EDE options Command line Directories Executable files path Include files path Library files path PATH environment lair linker option Ldir Table 5 2 Project directories The following compiler op
118. gt See the CrossView Pro Debugger User s Manual for more information User s Manual 2 20 141HVIS 9NILL49 C LANGUAGE ail TASKING M diLdVHO C Language 3 3 3 1 INTRODUCTION The TASKING C cross compiler cm16c fully supports the ISO C99 standard In addition it adds extra possibilities to write fast and compact code for the M16C and to use the special functions of the M16C In addition to the standard C language the compiler supports the following extra data type __bit intrinsic built in functions that result in M16C specific assembly instructions pragmas to control the compiler from within the C source predefined macros the possibility to use assembly instructions in the C source keywords to specify memory types for data and functions attributes to specify alignment and absolute addresses keywords for programming interrupt routines libraries All non standard keywords have two leading underscores _ This chapter first describes programming strategies and tips for writing optimal code for the M16C Next the M16C specific characteristics of the C language are described into more detail 3 4 User s Manual 3 2 PROGRAMMING STRATEGIES 3 2 1 MEMORY SPACES Choosing Memory Spaces The TASKING M16C toolchain introduces several qualifiers to control how and where you want to allocate C objects in memory Among others the following memory qualifiers exist _ fa
119. h you refer are extracted from the library This implies that if you invoke the linker like lkml16c mylib a nothing is linked and no output file will be produced because there are no unresolved symbols when the linker searches through mylib a It is possible to force a symbol as external unresolved symbol with the option e lkml6c e main mylib a In this case the linker searches for the symbol main in the library and if found extracts the object that contains main If this module contains new unresolved symbols the linker looks again in mylib a This process repeats until no new unresolved symbols are found 8 5 INCREMENTAL LINKING With the M16C linker Ikm16c it is possible to link incrementally Incremental linking means that you link some but not all obj modules to a relocatable object file e1n In this case the linker does not perform the locating phase With the second invocation you specify both new obj files and the eln file you had created with the first invocation amp Incremental linking is only possible on the command line lkml16c r testl obj otest eln lkml6c test2 obj test eln This links the file test1 obj and generates the file test e1n This file is used again and linked together with test2 obj to create the file taskl elf the default name if no output filename is given in the default ELF DWARF 2 format With incremental linking it is normal to have unresolved references in the output file
120. he default project is called demo pjt and contains a CrossView Pro debugger example Select a sample project To select a project from the list of projects in a project space 1 In the Project Window right click on the project you want to open A menu appears 2 Select Set as Current Project Tbe selected project opens 3 Read the file readme txt for more information about the selected sample project Building a sample project To build the currently active sample project e_ Click on the Execute Make command button Once the files have been processed you can inspect the generated messages in the Build tab of the Output window 2 10 GETTING STARTED User s Manual 2 5 CREATE A NEW PROJECT SPACE WITH A PROJECT Creating a project space is in fact nothing more than creating a project space file psp in an existing or new directory Create a new project space 1 From the File menu select New Project Space The Create a New Project Space dialog appears Create a New Project Space 2 In the the Filename field enter a name for your project space for example MyProjects Click the Browse button to select a directory first and enter a filename 3 Check the directory and filename and click OK to create the psp file in the directory shown in the dialog A project space information file with the name MyProjects psp is created and the Project Properties dialog box appears with the project spac
121. hen it is in front of the next command line The use of the as an operator for a command like a semicolon separated list with each item on one line and the V as a layout tool is not supported unless they are separated with whitespace The make utility can generate inline temporary files If a line contains lt lt LABEL no whitespaces then all subseguent lines are placed in a temporary file until the line LABEL is encountered Next lt lt LABEL is replaced by the name of the temporary file Example lkml6c o f lt lt EOF separate A n match obj separate n match a LKFLAGS EOF The three lines between lt lt EOF and EOF are written to a temporary file for example mkce4c0a tmp and the rule is rewritten as lkml6c o 6 f mkce4c0a tmp Instead of specifying a specific target you can also define a general target A general target specifies the rules to generate a file with extension ex1 to a file with extension ex2 For example SUFFIXES ac C Src 7 lkml6c lt Read this as to build a file with extension src out of a file with extension c call the compiler with lt lt is a predefined macro that is replaced with the basename of the specified file The special target SUFFIXES is followed by a list of file extensions of the files that are reguired to build the target Implicit Rules Implicit rules are stored in the system makefile mkm16c mk and are
122. ifies which C source lines must nosource be shown in assembly output See compiler option s in section 4 1 Compiler Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual tradeoff level Controls the speed size tradeoff for optimizations See compiler option t in section 4 1 Compiler Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual warning number Disables warning messages See compiler option w in section 4 1 Compiler Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual weak symbol Marks a symbol as weak Table 3 5 Overview of pragmas d gt For a detailed description of each pragma see section 1 6 Pragmas in Chapter C Language of the Reference Manudl 3 8 PREDEFINED MACROS In addition to the predefined macros required by the ISO C standard the TASKING C compiler supports the predefined macros as defined in Table 3 6 The macros are useful to create conditional C code C Language 3 29 Macro Description _ SINGLE FP__ Defined when you use compiler option F Treat double as float _ CM16C__ Identifies the compiler You can use this symbol to flag parts of the source which must be recognized by the cm16c compiler only It expands to the version number of the compiler CPU _ Expands to the CPU type specified to the compiler option C or O otherwise _ LITTLE ENDIAN__ Expands to 1 indicating the processor accesses data in litt
123. in the list is the first path where the linker looks for library files To change the search order simply change the order of pathnames amp Instead of typing the pathnames you can click on the Configure button A dialog box appears in which you can select and add directories remove them again and change their order Software Installation and Configuration 1 3 2 CONFIGURING THE COMMAND LINE ENVIRONMENT To facilitate the invocation of the tools from the command line either using a Windows command prompt or using Linux or UNIX you can set environment variables You can set the following variables Environment Variable Description PATH With this variable you specify the directory in which the executables reside default c cm16c bin This allows you to call the executables when you are not in the bin directory Usually your system already uses the PATH variable for other purposes To keep these settings you need to add rather than replace the path Use a semicolon to separate pathnames CM16CINC With this variable you specify one or more additional directories in which the C compiler cm16c looks for include files The compiler first looks in these directories then always looks in the default include directory relative to the installation directory ASM16CINC With this variable you specify one or more additional directories in which the assembler asm16c looks for incl
124. install a software license you must have a License Key containing the license information for your software product If you have not received such a license key follow the steps below to obtain one Otherwise you can install the license Windows 1 Run the License Administrator during installation and follow the steps to Request a license key from Altium by E mail E mail the license request to your local TASKING sales representative The license key will be sent to you by E mail Software Installation and Configuration 1 13 UNIX 1 If you need a floating license on UNIX you must determine the host ID and host name of the computer where you want to use the license manager Also decide how many users will be using the product See section 1 4 5 How to Determine tbe Host ID and section 1 4 6 How to Determine tbe Host Name When you order a TASKING product provide the host ID host name and number of users to your local TASKING sales representative The license key will be sent to you by E mail 1 4 2 INSTALLING NODE LOCKED LICENSES 2 If you do not have received your license key read section 1 4 1 Obtaining License Information before continuing Install the TASKING software product following the installation procedure described in section 1 2 1 Installation for Windows if you have not done this already Create a license file by importing a license key or create one manually Import a license key
125. int anywhere in memory Pointer arithmetic with __ far is 32 bits whereas with __ paged 16 bit pointer arithmetic is used because an __ paged object is always located in a 64 kB page Function pointers for the M16C core are always __ far pointers and function pointers for the R8C core are always __ near pointers Structures A structure declaration is intended to specify the layout of a structure or union A structure declaration itself nor its members can be bound to any storage area Members of type pointer of course can point to variables in a particular memory space A tag then is used to define objects of the declared structure type You can gualify this object with a memory type gualifier to allocate it in a particular memory space The whole object including its members is allocated in the specified memory struct S _ near int i referring to storage not correct far char p used to specify target memory correct C Language 3 15 In the declaration above the compiler ignores the erroneous __ near memory type gualifier _ near struct S my struct The compiler now reserves 6 bytes for the object my_struct 2 bytes for int i and 4 bytes for pointer p which points to a variable in far memory The following example is also correct _ near struct S int i __near char p my struct The example above combines the structure declaration S and the structure definition of my_struct In this case
126. integers instead If you still need floating point arithmetric try to use single precision floating point Arithmetic with floats is much faster than with doubles To illustrate this using the whetstone example Whetstone Float Double Achievement Size of module whet_CO is 2096 whet c 1869 bytes 2335 bytes smaller for float than for double Size of application is 3696 smaller whet elf 9618 bytes 15079 bytes for float thani for do ble time 36 sec 220 sec Execution time is 84 faster for float than for double Floating point constants like 1 0 are double precision according to the C standard If you only need single precision make sure to use the float postfix notation for constants for example 1 0f User s Manual In ISO C99 all library function like double cos double have a single precision parallel function like float cosf float Use these single precision functions whenever possible The tgmath h header file even contains type generic functions which automatically call the best variant see section 2 2 13 Matb b and Tgmath h in Chapter Libraries of the Reference Manual Variable argument lists can never be float only double But there is one exception with the option Use single precision float point only on the floating point page of the Compiler options floats are used everywhere instead of doubles also in varargs This is the only way to have single precision floats in vararg functions like printf 3 2 4 GE
127. intimately tied to the SUFFIXES special target Each dependency that follows the SUFFIXES target defines an extension to a filename which must be used to build another file The implicit rules then define how to actually build one file from another These files share a common basename but have different extensions Using the Utilities 9 17 If the specified target on the command line is not defined in the makefile or has not rules in the makefile the make utility looks if there is an implicit rule to build the target Example This makefile says that prog elf depends on two files prog obj and sub obj and that they in turn depend on their corresponding source files prog c and sub c along with the common file inc h LIB lcs macro prog elf prog obj sub obj lkml6c prog obj sub obj LIB o prog elf prog obj prog c inc h cml6c prog c asml6c prog src sub obj sub c inc h cml6c sub c asml6c sub src The following makefile uses implicit rules from mkm16c mk to perform the same job LKFLAGS lcs macro used by implicit rules prog elf prog obj sub obj implicit rule used prog obj prog c inc h implicit rule used sub obj sub c inc h implicit rule used Files makefile Description of dependencies and rules Makefile Alternative to makefile for UNIX mkm16c mk Default dependencies and rules Diagnostics mkm16c returns an exit status of 1 when it halts as a result of an error Otherwise it returns an
128. ion Other information about the object code that is used by a debugger The assembler optionally generates this information and can consist of line numbers C source code local symbols and descriptions of data structures The linker resolves the external references between the supplied relocatable object files and or libraries and combines the supplied relocatable object files into a single relocatable linker object file The linker starts its task by scanning all specified relocatable object files and libraries If the linker encounters an unresolved symbol it remembers its name and continues scanning The symbol may be defined elsewhere in the same file or in one of the other files or libraries that you specified to the linker If the symbol is defined in a library the linker extracts the object file with the symbol definition from the library This way the linker collects all definitions and references of all of the symbols Using the Linker 8 7 With this information the linker combines the object code of all relocatable object files The linker combines sections with the same section name and attributes into single sections starting each section at address zero The linker also substitutes external symbol references by relocatable numerical addresses where possible At the end of the linking phase the linker either writes the results to a file a single relocatable object file or keeps the results in memory for further processi
129. ions dialog in a similar way as described above for the C compiler If available the Options string field shows the command line options that correspond to your graphical selections 2 16 User s Manual Synchronize options with the ROM monitor If you use a ROM monitor for debugging you must be sure that all EDE settings are correct for communicating with the ROM monitor If the ROM monitor target board is connected to your PC EDE can automatically set the correct options based on the ROM monitor To do this 1 Click on the Synchronize options with the ROM monitor button The Synchronize Options dialog appears Synchronize options x m Settings Serial port coM1 7 Baud rate 57600 7 un Status Syne Scanning COM1 at 57600 found ROM Monitor V3 0 TASKING M16C ROM monitor Target Glyn M16C 6N0 Serial port COM1 Baud rate 57600 CPU M306NO Processor mode _ Single chip mode Serial vector Oxfe000 Serial interrupt 18 RAM 0x400 0x2bff 02800 Flash Oxc0000 Oxfffff 0x40000 Reserve areas 0x2b20 0x2bff OxeD Reserve areas OxfcODO Oxfffff 0x4000 2 Specify the Serial port and Baud rate at which the ROM monitor is connected and click Scan If you do not know the port or baud rate you can click Scan All to scan all COM ports for the ROM monitor 3 Click Sync to synchronize the shown options with the current project A message appears that the current project has been synchroni
130. ition 4 19 Index dup directive 4 26 local label override 4 25 return decimal value operator 4 23 return hex value operator 4 23 macro argument string 4 24 macro operations 4 19 macros 4 19 macros in C 3 28 make utility 9 9 DEFAULT target 9 14 DONE target 9 14 IGNORE target 9 14 INIT target 9 14 PRECIOUS target 9 15 SILENT target 9 14 SUFFIXES target 9 14 conditional processing 9 21 dependency 9 13 else 9 21 endif 9 21 exist function 9 21 export line 9 22 functions 9 20 ifdef 9 21 ifndef 9 21 implicit rules 9 16 invocation 9 11 macro definition 9 11 macro MAKE 9 18 macro MAKEFLAGS 9 18 macro PRODDIR 9 18 macro SHELLCMD 9 19 macro TMP_CCOPT 9 19 macro TMP_CCPROG 9 19 makefile 9 9 9 12 match function 9 20 nexist function 9 21 options overview 9 11 predefined macros 9 18 protect function 9 20 rules in makefile 9 15 separate function 9 20 Index Index 7 special targets 9 14 make utility options overview 9 11 makefile 9 9 automatic creation of 2 13 updating 2 13 writing 9 12 malloc checks 5 22 memory definition 8 22 memory models 3 19 large 3 19 medium 3 19 small 3 19 memory qualifiers 3 12 _ bita 3 13 __ far 3 13 __ near 3 13 _ paged 3 13 _ rom 3 13 3 30 sfr 3 13 memory type qualifiers 3 13 MISRA C 5 16 advisory rules 5 17 required rules 5 17 mkm16c See make utility Motorola S record format 8 8 node locked
131. le endian _ MODEL _ Identifies the memory model for which the current module is compiled For example if you compile for the small memory model the macro expands to s _ M16C__ Defined when you select a M16C core _ R8C__ Defined when you select a R8C core r8c __TASKING__ Identifies the compiler as a TASKING compiler It expands to 1 _ DSPC__ Indicates conformation to the DSP C standard Expands to 0 DSP C extensions are not supported __VERSION__ Identifies the version number of the compiler For example if you use version 3 0r1 of the compiler __VERSION__ expands to 3000 dot and revision number are omitted minor version number in 3 digits REVISION __ Identifies the revision number of the compiler For example if you use version 3 0r1 of the compiler __REVISION__ expands to 1 _ BUILD __ Identifies the build number of the compiler composed of decimal digits for the build number three digits for the major branch number and three digits for the minor branch number For example if you use build 1 22 1 of the compiler _BUILD__ expands to 1022001 If there is no branch number the branch digits expand to zero For example build 127 results in 127000000 Table 3 6 Predefined macros Example ifdef _ CMl6C __ this part is for the M16C compiler endif 3 30 User s Manual 3 9 INITIALIZED VARIABLES Non static initialized variables use the same amount of
132. led MISRA C rules are indicated with error messages and the build process is halted MISRA C rules are divided in required rules and advisory rules If rules are violated errors are generated causing the compiler to stop With the following options warnings instead of errors are generated for either or both the required rules and the advisory rules mmisrac reguired warnings misrac advisory warnings Note that not all MISRA C violations will be reported when other errors are detected in the input source For instance when there is a syntax error all semantic checks will be skipped including some of the MISRA C checks Also note that some checks cannot be performed when the optimizations are switched off Quality Assurance report To ensure compliance to the MISRA C rules throughout the entire project the TASKING M16C linker can generate a MISRA C Quality Assurance report This report lists the various modules in the project with the respective MISRA C settings at the time of compilation You can use this in your company s quality assurance system to provide proof that company rules for best practice programming have been applied in the particular project 5 18 User s Manual Apply MISRA C code checking to your application 1 From the Project menu select Project Options Tbe Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the C Compiler entry and select MISRA C 3 Select a MISRA C configuration Select a predefine
133. les A line with leading white space tabs or spaces is considered as a rule and associated with the most recently preceding dependency line A rule is a line with commands that are executed to build the associated target A target dependency line can be followed by one or more rules final src final c target and dependency mv test c final c rulel cml6c final c rule2 You can precede a rule with one or more of the following characters does not echo the command line except if n is used the make utility ignores the exit code of the command ERRORLEVEL in MS DOS Normally the make utility stops if a non zero exit code is returned This is the same as specifying the option i on the command line or specifying the special IGNORE target The make utility uses a shell or COMMAND COM to execute the command If the is not followed by a shell line but the command is a DOS command or if redirection is used lt gt the shell line is passed to COMMAND COM anyway For UNIX redirection backguote parentheses and variables force the use of a shell You can force mkm16c to execute multiple command lines in one shell environment This is accomplished with the token combination For example cd c cml6c bin ccml6c V 9 16 amp User s Manual The must always directly be followed by the V token Whitespace is not removed when it is at the end of the previous command line or w
134. less expressions may be introduced by macros or by the compiler itself for example array subscription Constant propagation option Op OP A variable with a known constant value is replaced by that value Function Inlining option Oi OI Small functions that are not too often called are inlined This reduces execution time at the cost of code size Compaction reverse inlining option Or OR Compaction is the opposite of inlining functions large chunks of code that occur more than once are transformed into a function This reduces code size at the cost of execution speed Control flow simplification option Of OF A number of techniques to simplify the flow of the program by removing unnecessary code and reducing the number of jumps For example Switch optimization A number of optimizations of a switch statement are performed such as removing redundant case labels or even removing an entire switch User s Manual Jump cbaining A conditional jump to a label which is immediately followed by an unconditional jump may be replaced by a jump to the destination label of the second jump This optimization speeds up execution Conditional jump reversal A conditional jump over an unconditional jump is transformed into one conditional jump with the jump condition reversed This reduces both the code size and the execution time Dead code elimination Code that is never reached is removed The compiler generates a wa
135. library If you use your own library the linker searches the library in the current directory only 8 4 3 HOW THE LINKER EXTRACTS OBJECTS FROM LIBRARIES A library built with arm16c always contains an index part at the beginning of the library The linker scans this index while searching for unresolved externals However to keep the index as small as possible only the defined symbols of the library members are recorded in this area When the linker finds a symbol that matches an unresolved external the corresponding object file is extracted from the library and is processed After processing the object file the remaining library index is searched If after a complete search of the library unresolved externals are introduced the library index will be scanned again After all files and libraries are processed and there are still unresolved externals and you did not specify the linker option no rescan all libraries are rescanned again This way you do not have to worry about the library order However this rescanning does not work for weak symbols If you use a weak symbol construction like printf in an object file or your own library you must position this object library before the C library The v option shows how libraries have been searched and which objects have been extracted 8 18 User s Manual Resolving symbols If you are linking from libraries only the objects that contain symbol definition s to whic
136. license 1 12 o operands 4 5 opimizations size speed trade off 5 9 optimization backend call to jump 5 9 coalescer 5 8 5 9 interprocedural register optimization 5 8 loop transformations 5 8 peephole optimizations 5 9 subscript strength reduction 5 8 optimization backend 5 5 compiler common subexpression elimination 5 7 frontend 5 4 optimization frontend compaction 5 7 conditional jump reversal 5 8 constant propagation 5 7 control flow simplification 5 7 dead code elimination 5 8 expression simplification 5 7 flow simplification 5 7 forward store 5 8 inlining functions 5 7 jump chaining 5 8 reverse inlining 5 7 switch optimization 5 7 optimizations compiler 5 5 compress ROM image 8 10 copy table compression 8 10 delete duplicate code sections 8 10 delete duplicate constant data 8 10 delete unreferenced sections 8 10 first fit decreasing 8 9 P parameter passing 3 32 parser 5 4 peephole optimization 5 5 5 9 pragmas 3 27 inline 3 35 noinline 3 35 smartinline 3 35 predefined macros in C 3 28 _ CM16C_ 3 29 CPU_ 3 29 _ DSPC_ 3 29 _ M16C_ 3 29 Index 8 _ R8C_ 3 29 _ SINGLE FP__ 3 29 _ TASKING _ 3 29 printf formatter 3 45 processor selecting a core 5 10 7 5 processor definition 8 22 Profiling 6 3 call graph incorrect 6 14 code instrumentation 6 5 heap too small 5 25 6 10 with debugger 6 4 with simulator 6
137. ling information is stored in the file amon prf However you can rename this file to keep previous results 3 Browse to the profile file you want to display amon prf or one of the renamed profiling files It is possible to select multiple prf files The results are combined 4 Click OK to confirm The profile information of the selected file is displayed in the Profiling tab of the Output window The Output Profiling window Results table Shows the timing and call information for all functions and or blocks in the profile Callers table Shows the functions that called the focus function Callees table Shows the functions that are called by the focus function e Double clicking on a function in a table makes the function the focus function e To sort the rows in the table click on one of the column headers e Right clicking in a table opens a guick access menu e With the copy functions it is possible to copy a table or selected rows to other applications To select one or more rows hold down the Shift key or Ctrl key and click the rows you want to add to the selection 6 12 User s Manual Tbe profiling information Based on the profiling options you have set before compiling your application some columns in the profiling window may remain empty The columns in the tables represent the following information In the results table Module Line Function Total time Self time in function
138. llowing input files e Files with a cc cxx or cpp suffix are interpreted as C source programs and are passed to the C compiler e Files with a c suffix are interpreted as C source programs and are passed to the compiler e Files with a asm suffix are interpreted as hand written assembly source files which have to be passed to the assembler e Files with a src suffix are interpreted as compiled assembly source files They are directly passed to the assembler Using the Utilities 9 5 e Files with a a suffix are interpreted as library files and are passed to the linker e Files with a obj suffix are interpreted as object files and are passed to the linker e Files with a eln suffix are interpreted as linked object files and are passed to the locating phase of the linker The linker accepts only one eln file in the invocation e An argument with a 1s1 suffix is interpreted as a linker script file and is passed to the linker Options of the control program The following control program options are available Description Option Information Display invocation options Display version header V Check the source but do not generate code check Show description of diagnostics diag fmt all nr Verbose option show commands invoked V Verbose option show commands without executing n Suppress all warnings W Treat warnings as errors warnings as errors Show C and
139. lls Calls the focus function These should add up to 100 Number of calls to the focus function Number of calls to the focus function as a percentage of all calls to the focus function These should add up to 100 In the callee table This table basically contains the same columns as the caller table Only the caller column is replaced by the callee column which also changes the meaning of the calls and calls column Callee Calls Calls The name s of the function s that are called by the focus function Number of calls from the focus function Number of calls from the focus function as a percentage of all calls from the focus function These should add up to 100 Note that the self time of the focus function plus the total time of its callees result in the total time of the focus function 6 14 User s Manual Presumable incorrect call grapb The call graph is based on the compiled source code Due to compiler optimizations the call graph may therefore seem incorrect at first sight For example the compiler can replace a function call immediately followed by a return instruction by a jump to the callee thereby merging the callee function with the caller function In this case the time spent in the callee function is not recorded separately anymore but added to the time spent in the caller function which as said before now holds the callee function This represents exactly the structure of your so
140. lossary of terms Term Definition Absolute object file Object code in which addresses have fixed absolute values ready to load into a target Address A specification of a location in an address space Address space The set of possible addresses A core can support multiple spaces for example in a Harvard architecture the addresses that identify the location of an instruction refer to code space whereas addresses that identify the location of a data object refer to a data space Architecture A description of the characteristics of a core that are of interest for the linker This encompasses the logical address space s and the internal bus structure Given this information the linker can convert logical addresses into physical addresses Copy table A section created by the linker This section contains data that specifies how the startup code initializes the data sections For each section the copy table contains the following fields action defines whether a section is copied or zeroed destination defines the section s address in RAM source defines the sections address in ROM length defines the size of the section in MAUs of the destination space Core An instance of a core architecture Derivative The design of a processor A description of one or more cores including internal memory and any number of buses Library Collection of relocatable object files Usually each object file in a library contains one s
141. m 9 4 flash utility 9 27 flasbm16c 9 27 make utility 9 9 temporary files setting directory 1 10 transferring parameters between functions 3 32 mkm106c 9 9 unhandled case switch 5 22 Vv dati kefile 2 1 a HE 5 variables initialized 3 30 archiver 9 23 verbose option linker 8 17 Index 10 INDEX Index
142. macro def esymbol error file file f file first library first ignore default library path k link only Isl check munch N non romable r V V Table 8 3 Linker command line options The invocation syntax on the command line is lkml6c option file When you are linking multiple files either relocatable object files obj or libraries a it is important to specify the files in the right order This is explained in Section 8 4 1 Specifying Libraries to the Linker Example lkml16c otest elf dml6c lsl test obj This links and locates the file test obj and generates the file test elf For a complete overview of all options with extensive description see section 4 3 Linker Options of the Reference Manual 8 14 User s Manual 8 4 LINKING WITH LIBRARIES There are two kinds of libraries system libraries and user libraries System library The lib directory of the toolchain contains subdirectories with separate system libraries for the M16C and the R8C An overview of the system libraries is given in the following tables Library to link Description libcs a C library for small medium or large memory model libcm a Some functions require the floating point library Also libcl a includes the startup code libcss a Single precision C library for small medium or large memory libcms a model compiler option F
143. me This label appears in the output file even if no reference to the label exist in the input file lc_ge name End of group name This label appears in the output file even if no reference to the label exist in the input file Table 8 6 Linker labels The linker only allocates space for the stack and or heap when a reference to either of the section labels exists in one of the input object files 8 35 8 36 User s Manual amp At C level all linker labels start with one leading underscore the compiler adds an extra underscore Example Suppose in an LSL file you have defined a user stack section with the name ustack with the keyword stack You can refer to the begin and end of the stack from your C source as follows labels have one leading underscore include lt stdio h gt extern char _lc ub ustack extern char _lc ue ustack void main printf Size of user stack is d n _lc ue ustack _lc ub ustack From assembly you can refer to the end of the user stack with extern _ lc ue ustack user stack end Using the Linker 8 37 8 8 GENERATING A MAP FILE The map file is an additional output file that contains information about the location of sections and symbols You can customize the type of information that should be included in the map file To generate a map file 1 From the Project menu select Project Options The Project Options dialog box appears
144. mmand line option the absolute file is directly flashed into the target 9 28 User s Manual From EDE you can start flashing with one click on the Flash an ELF Intel Hex or Motorola S Rec file button located in the toolbar Options of the flash utility The following flash utility options are available Description Option Target selection Default M16C20 M16C60 no option M16C10 M16C10 R8C10 R8C13 R8C10 Flasher settings Flash actions B Blank check F Erase all blocks P Program file V Verify programmed blocks actions flag Flash ID code Use id to access the flash When IDs 00 or FF fail do not retry with opposite id id noidretry Communication settings Specify baud rate default 9600 Specify the serial port to use Use USB connection Set the target board and upload the hex file to the USB monitor board baudrate baudrate com 1 2 3 4 USB set_USB_target iarget Files Set working directory Read options from file Save original contents before overwriting Specify start end address for backup default 0xC0000 OxFFFFF dir dir f file backup file backup_range siart end Using the Utilities Description Option Append errors to file err file Miscellaneous Do not use the Flash dialog nodialog Log level detail of warnings 0 none level 0 1 2 3 3 all Display short descripti
145. mpilation process which consists of a frontend and a backend part During compilation the code is optimized in several ways The various optimizations are described in the second section Third it is described how to call the compiler and how to use its options An extensive list of all options and their descriptions is included in the section 4 1 Compiler Options in Chapter 4 Tool Options of the Reference Manual Finally a few important basic tasks are described 5 4 User s Manual 5 2 COMPILATION PROCESS During the compilation of a C program the compiler cm16c runs through a number of phases that are divided into two groups frontend and backend The backend part is not called for each C statement but starts after a complete C module or set of modules has been processed by the frontend in memory This allows better optimization Frontend phases 1 The preprocessor phase The preprocessor includes files and substitutes macros by C source It uses only string manipulations on the C source The syntax for the preprocessor is independent of the C syntax but is also described in the ISO IEC 9899 1999 E standard 2 The scanner phase The scanner converts the preprocessor output to a stream of tokens 3 The parser phase The tokens are fed to a parser for the C grammar The parser performs a syntactic and semantic analysis of the program and generates an intermediate representation of the program This code is called
146. n LSL you may want to extend the processor with memory You need to specify the location and size of the physical external memory devices in the target system The principle is the same as defining the core s architecture but now you need to fill the memory definition memory name memory definitions memory iram 0 LE a mau 8 Lq 16k _ 0 MM amp mau 8 1k memory my_nvram ln o i 0 mau 8 i 256k memory irom Figure 8 3 Adding external memory to the M16C architecture Suppose your embedded system has 16k of RAM named iram 1k of non volatile RAM called my_nvram and 256k of ROM named irom see figure above The memories are connected to the bus data_bus In LSL this looks like Using the Linker 8 29 memory iram type ram size 16k mau 8 map src offset 0x0000 dest_offset 0x0400 size 16k dest bus Ml6C data_ bus The memory my_nvram is connected to the bus with an offset of 0x5000 memory my_nvram type ram size 1k mau 8 map src offset 0x0000 dest_offset 0x5000 size lk dest bus Ml6C data bus The memory irom is connected to the bus with an offset of 0xC0000 memory irom type rom size 256k mau 8 map src offset 0x0000 dest_offset 0xc0000 size 256k dest bus Ml6C data bus amp If you use a different memory layout than described in the LSL file supplied for the target c
147. n and enable the optimizations you want in the Custom optimization box 5 6 User s Manual Optimization levels The TASKING C compilers offer four optimization levels and a custom level at each level a specific set of optimizations is enabled Level 0 No optimizations are performed The compiler tries to achieve a 1 to 1 resemblance between source code and produced code Expressions are evaluated in the order written in the source code associative and commutative properties are not used Level 1 Enables optimizations that do not affect the debug ability of the source code Use this level when you are developing debugging new source code Level 2 Enables more aggressive optimizations to reduce the memory footprint and or execution time The debugger can handle this code but the relation between source code and generated instructions may be hard to understand Use this level for those modules that are already debugged This is the default optimization level Level 3 Enables aggressive global optimization techniques The relation between source code and generated instructions can be very hard to understand The debugger does not crash will not provide misleading information but does not fully understand what is going on Use this level when your program does not fit in the memory provided by your system anymore or when your program hardware has become too slow to meet your real time requirements Custom level you can ena
148. n of a project space is saved in a project space file psp e alist of projects in the project space e history information Within a project space you can create projects Projects are bound to a target You can create add or edit files in the project which together form your application All information of a project is saved in a project file pjt e the target for which the project is created e a list of the source files in the project e the options for the compiler assembler linker and debugger e the default directories for the include files libraries and executables e the build options e history information When you build your project EDE handles file dependencies and the exact seguence of operations reguired to build your application When you push the Build button EDE generates a makefile including all dependencies and builds your application Overview of steps to create and build an application 1 Create a project space 2 Add one or more projects to the project space 3 Add files to the project 4 Edit the files 5 Set development tool options 6 Build the application 2 8 z User s Manual 2 3 START EDE Start EDE e Double click on the EDE shortcut on your desktop OL Launch EDE via the program folder created by the installation program Select Start gt Programs gt TASKING toolchain gt EDE al Figure 2 3 EDE icon The EDE screen contains a menu bar a toolbar with comm
149. n your program do not show up in the profile The profiling information is collected during the actual execution of the program Therefore the input of the program influences the results If a part function of the program is not activated while the program is profiled no profile data is generated for that part function It is possible to execute the application multiple times while varying the input data and combine the profiling results of those runs See section 6 2 3 Step 3 displaying profiling resulls Overview of steps to perform To obtain a profile using code instrumentation perform the following steps 1 Compile and link your program with profiling enabled 2 Execute the program to generate the profiling data 3 Display the profiling results C Language 6 7 6 2 1 STEP 1 BUILD YOUR APPLICATION FOR PROFILING The first step is to add the code that takes care of the profiling to your application This is done with compiler options For profiling at application wide scope 1 From the Project menu select Project Options Tbe Project Options dialog box appears Or for profiling at module scope From the Project menu select Current File Options Tbe File Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the C Compiler entry and select Profiler 3 Enable one or more of the following profiler options to select which profiles should be obtained Block counters not with Call grapb or Function timers e Call
150. names begin with a period DEFAULT If you call the make utility with a target that has no definition in the make file this target is build DONE When the make utility has finished building the specified targets it continues with the rules following this target IGNORE _ Non zero error codes returned from commands are ignored Encountering this in a makefile is the same as specifying the option i on the command line ANIT The rules following this target are executed before any other targets are build SILENT Commands are not echoed before executing them Encountering this in a makefile is the same as specifying the option s on the command line SUFFIXES This target specifies a list of file extensions Instead of building a completely specified target you now can build a target that has a certain file extension Implicit rules to build files with a number of extensions are included in the system makefile mkm16c mk Using the Utilities 9 15 If you specify this target with dependencies these are added to the existing SUFFIXES target in mkml6c mk If you specify this target without dependencies the existing list is cleared PRECIOUS Dependency files mentioned for this target are never removed Normally if a command in a rule returns an error or when the target construction is interrupted the make utility removes that target file You can use the p command line option to make all target files precious Ru
151. nd reconstruct groups of programs The make utility looks whether files are out of date rebuilds them and determines which other files as a conseguence also need to be rebuild arm16c An ELF archiver With this utility you create and maintain object library files flashm16c A utility to flash an ELF Intel Hex or Motorola S Records file 9 4 User s Manual 7 9 2 CONTROL PROGRAM The control program cem16c is a tool that invokes all tools in the toolchain for you It provides a quick and easy way to generate the final absolute object file out of your C sources without the need to invoke the compiler assembler and linker manually 9 2 1 CALLING THE CONTROL PROGRAM You can only call the control program from the command line The invocation syntax is ccml6c option file For example ccml6c v test c The control program calls all tools in the toolchain and generates the absolute object file test elf With the control program option v you can see how the control program calls the tools c cml6c bin cml6c Ms o test src test c c cml6c bin asml6c o test obj test src c cml6c bin lkml6c test obj o test elf map file lcs lfps lrts By default the control program removes the intermediate output files test src and test obj in the example above afterwards unless you specify the command line option t keep temporary files Recognized input files The control program recognizes the fo
152. ndency rule rule Target lines must always start at the beginning of a line leading white spaces tabs or spaces are not allowed A target line consists of one or more targets a semicolon and a set of files which are required to build the target dependencies The target itself can be one or more filenames or symbolic names all demo elf final elf demo elf final elf test obj demo obj final obj You can now can specify the target you want to build to the make utility The following three invocations all have the same effect mkml6c mkml16c all mkml6c demo elf final elf 9 14 User s Manual If you do 701 specify a target the first target in the makefile in this example all is build The target all depends on demo elf and final elf so the second and third invocation have also the same effect and the files demo elf and final elf are built In MS Windows you can normally use colons to denote drive letters The following works as intended c foo obj a foo c If a target is defined in more than one target line the dependencies are added to form the target s complete dependency list all demo elf These two lines are equivalent with all final elf all demo elf final elf For target lines macros and functions are expanded at the moment they are read by the make utility Normally macros are not expanded until the moment they are actually used Special Targets There are a number of special targets Their
153. ng during the locating phase The resulting file of the linking phase is a single relocatable object file eln If this file contains unresolved references you can link this file with other relocatable object files obj or libraries a to resolve the remaining unresolved references With the linker command line option link only you can tell the linker to only perform this linking phase and skip the locating phase The linker complains if any unresolved references are left 8 2 2 PHASE 2 LOCATING In the locating phase the linker assigns absolute addresses to the object code placing each section in a specific part of the target memory The linker also replaces references to symbols by the actual address of those symbols The resulting file is an absolute object file which you can actually load into a target memory Optionally when the resulting file should be loaded into a ROM device the linker creates a so called copy table section which is used by the startup code to initialize the data sections Code modification When the linker assigns absolute addresses to the object code it needs to modify this code according to certain rules or relocation expressions to reflect the new addresses These relocation expressions are stored in the relocatable object file Consider the following snippet of x86 code that moves the contents of variable a to variable b via the eax register Al 3412 0000 mov a eax a defined at 0x1234 byte
154. ng optimization is enabled the linker will first place the largest sections in the smallest memory ranges that can contain the section Small sections are located last and can likely fit in the remaining gaps Copy table compression option Ot OT The startup code initializes the application s data areas The information about which memory addresses should be zeroed and which memory ranges should be copied from ROM to RAM is stored in the copy table When this optimization is enabled the linker will try to locate sections in such a way that the copy table is as small as possible thereby reducing the application s ROM image This optimization reduces both memory and startup speed Compress ROM image option Oz OZ Reduce the size of the application s ROM image by compressing the ROM image of initialized data sections At application startup time the ROM image is decompressed and copied to RAM Delete unreferenced sections option Oc OC This optimization removes unused sections from the resulting object file Because debug information normally refers to all sections this optimization has no effect until you compile your project without debug information or use linker option strip debug to remove the debug information Delete duplicate code sections option Ox OX Delete duplicate data sections option Oy OY These two optimizations remove code and constant data that is defined more than once from the resulting o
155. nment independent the application is profiled while it executes on its aimed target taking real life input Disadvantage instrumentation code creates a significant run time overhead and instrumentation code and gathered data take up target memory This method provides a valuable complement to the other two methods and will be described into more detail below 6 2 PROFILING USING CODE INSTRUMENTATION Profiling can be used to determine which parts of a program take most of the execution time Once the collected data are presented it may reveal which parts of your code execute slower than expected and which functions contribute most to the overall execution time of a program It gives you also information about which functions are called more or less often than expected This information not only may reveal design flaws or bugs that had otherwise been unnoticed it also reveals parts of the program which can be effectively optimized 6 6 User s Manual Important considerations The code instrumentation method adds code to your original application which is needed to gather the profiling data Therefore the code size of your application increases Furthermore during the profiling process the gathered data is initially stored into dynamically allocated memory of the target The heap of your application should be large enough to store this data Since code instrumentation is done by the compiler assembly functions used i
156. nput bold Type this part of the syntax literally italics Substitute the italic word by an instance For example filename Type the name of a file in place of the word filename Encloses a list from which you must choose an item Encloses items that are optional For example cm16c Both cm16c and cm16c are valid commands Separates items in a list Read it as OR You can repeat the preceding item zero or more times ge You can repeat the preceding item zero or more times separating each item with a comma Example cm16c option filename You can read this line as follows enter the command cm16c with or without an option follow this by zero or more options and specify a filename The following input lines are all valid cml6c test c cml6c g test c cml6c g E test c Not valid is cml6c g According to the syntax description you have to specify a filename Manual Purpose and Structure XV Icons The following illustrations are used in this manual amp Note notes give you extra information Warning read the information carefully It prevents you from making serious mistakes or from loosing information This illustration indicates actions you can perform with the mouse Such as EDE menu entries and dialogs Ee Command line type your input on the command line d gt Reference follow this reference to find related topics XVI User s Manual e RELATED PUBLICATIONS C Standards
157. ns 4 4 Intel Hex format 8 8 interprocedural register optimization 5 8 interrupt frame 3 41 interrupt function 3 38 interrupt service routine 3 38 defining 3 39 intrinsic functions 3 36 J jump chain 3 31 jump chaining 5 8 jump table 3 31 jump_switch 3 31 L labels 4 3 4 6 libraries rebuilding 3 46 selting search directories 1 8 1 9 library user 8 14 library maintainer 9 23 license floating 1 12 node locked 1 12 obtaining 1 12 wait for available license 1 10 license file location 1 16 selting search directory 1 10 Index 6 licensing 1 12 linear_switch 3 31 linker optimizations 8 9 linker error messages 8 38 linker options overview 8 12 linker output formats ELF DWARF2 format 8 8 Intel Hex formal 8 8 Motorola S record format 8 8 linker script file 8 8 architecture definition 8 21 board specification 8 22 bus definition 8 22 derivative definition 8 21 memory definition 8 22 processor definition 8 22 section layout definition 8 23 linker script language LSL 8 8 8 19 internal memory 8 26 on chip memory 8 26 linking process 8 4 linking 8 6 locating 8 7 optimizing 8 9 list file generating 7 8 LM_LICENSE_FILE 1 16 local label override 4 25 lookup table 3 31 lookup_switch 3 31 loop transformations 5 8 Isl 8 19 macro 4 4 argument concatenation 4 22 argument operator 4 22 argument string 4 24 call 4 21 conditional assembly 4 26 defin
158. ns sssaaa saaara 3 36 Defining an Interrupt Service Routine __interruptQ 3 39 Register Bank Switching _ bankswitch 3 40 Interrupt Frame _ frame auauua 3 41 Section Naming FF eee 3 42 WTO CATIES te EET REU A bnan ME UR 3 44 Overview of Libraries V FF YF RAA 3 44 Printf and Scanf Formatting Routines 3 45 Rebuilding Libraries 0 0 00 00 cee 3 46 Converting C Modules to ISO C99 _ 3 47 Table of Contents ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE 4 1 4 1 Introduction 2 0 0 a 4 3 4 2 Assembly Syntax 00 00 00 ccc cee ens 4 3 43 Assembler Significant Characters 4 4 4 4 Operands of an Assembly Instruction 4 5 4 5 Symbol Names FF Aa 4 6 4 6 Assembly Expressions 0 00 00000 cece eee 4 7 4 6 1 Numeric Constants 0 00 00 0c FF aa 4 8 4 6 2 SINES esses weet ihe ta hoe Sudha oats E Yy 4 8 4 6 3 Expression Operators 0 00 FF FFF YD 4 9 4 7 Built in Assembly Functions ee 4 11 4 8 Assembler Directives and Controls 4 13 4 8 1 Overview of Assembler Directives 4 14 4 8 2 Overview of Assembler Controls 4 16 4 9 Working with Sections V FF OU 4 17 4 10 Macro Operations Y FFF FFF AS 4 19 4 10 1 Defining a Macro 0 eee 4 19 4 10 2 Calling a Macro 2 ene 4 21 4 10 3 Using Operators for Macro Arguments 4 22 4 10
159. nternal consistency checks fail and should never occur When you still receive the system error message S9 internal consistency check failed please report please report the error number and as many details as possible about the context in which the error occurred The following helps you to prepare an e mail using EDE 5 20 User s Manual 1 From the Help menu select Technical Support gt Prepare Email Tbe Prepare Email form appears 2 Fill out the the form State the error number and attach relevant files 3 Click the Copy to Email client button to open your email application A prepared e mail opens in your e mail application 4 Finish the e mail and send it Display detailed information on diagnostics 1 In the Help menu enable the option Show Help on Tool Errors 2 In the Build tab of the Output window double click on an error or warning message A description of tbe selected message appears Ea cml6c diag format all number d gt See compiler option diag in section 4 1 Compiler Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manudl Using the Compiler 5 21 5 9 RUN TIME ERROR CHECKING To be able to perform run time error checking the compiler adds extra code to your C source Because of the inserted code applications will run slower and reguire more memory Therefore it is recommended to use run time checking only during the development of the software A message is printe
160. ocument windows EDE automatically creates a makefile for the project in this case getstart mak This file contains the rules to build your application EDE updates the makefile every time you modify your project Edit your files 9 As an example type the following C source in the hello c document window include lt stdio h gt void main void printf Hello World An 10 Click on the Save the changed file lt Ctrl S gt button LI EDE saves the file 2 14 GETTING STARTED User s Manual 2 6 SET OPTIONS FOR THE TOOLS IN THE TOOLCHAIN The next step in the process of building your application is to select a target processor and specify the options for the different parts of the toolchain such as the C compiler assembler linker and debugger Select a target processor 1 2 SD Ge MW On DN From the Project menu select Project Options The Project Options dialog appears Expand the Processor entry and select Processor Definition M16C Project Options GETSTART PJT artup Code C Compiler RIGGESsoT Wipe In the Select core list select for example M16C In the Select group list select for example M16C62A In the Select processor list select for example M30624FGAFP GP Optional for some processors select a Processor mode Click OK to accept the new project settings Getting Started 2 15 Set tool options 1 From the Project menu select
161. ode size The dynamic memory usage increases only by a couple of bytes per allocation Memory allocated by malloc is deliberately initialized with a non zero value to force a failure when the application fails to initialize the memory To detect a buffer overflow a sentinel byte is placed directly after every allocation The sentinel is checked when the memory is freed Likewise a magic number before the allocation makes it possible to detect a buffer underflow This duplicates some functionality of the bounds checking but with lower overhead Using the Compiler 5 23 A call to free overwrites the memory to force a failure when the memory is used after it has been freed To detect modification of memory that has been freed a call to malloc will check the items freed since the previous call with a maximum of 4 for changes Stack overflow This option adds a test for stack overflow at the start of every function and for every variable length array declaration Enabling this check will extend the function prolog code with a stack overflow test Because the functions that report the stack overflow need some stack space themselves the overflow is reported before the limit is reached This margin is set at 24 bytes Division by zero Reports division by zero when during program execution an attempt was made to divide by zero This check will test the divisor just before a division takes place 5 24 User s Manual
162. of the included file are expanded before the file is included Include files may be nested include makefile2 Export lines An export line is used to export a macro definition to the environment of any command executed by the make utility GREETING Hello export GREETING This example creates the environment variable GREETING with the value Hello The macros is exported at the moment the export line is read so the macro definition has to proceed the export line Using the Utilities 9 23 9 4 ARCHIVER The archiver arm16c is a program to build and maintain your own library files A library file is a file with extension a and contains one or more object files obj that may be used by the linker The archiver has five main functionalities e Deleting an object module from the library e Moving an object module to another position in the library file e Replacing an object module in the library or add a new object module e Showing a table of contents of the library file e Extracting an object module from the library The archiver takes the following files for input and output assembler asm16c archiver e relocatable object file arm16c gt obj relocatable object library linker sa lkm16c Figure 9 1 ELF DWARF archiver and library maintainer The linker optionally includes object modules from a library if that module resolves an external symbol definition in one of the
163. oftware you can configure both the Embedded Development Environment and the command line environment for Windows Linux and UNIX 1 3 1 CONFIGURING THE EMBEDDED DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT After installation the Embedded Development Environment is automatically configured with default search paths to find the executables include files and libraries In most cases you can use these settings To change the default settings follow the next steps 1 Double click on the EDE icon on your desktop to start the Embedded Development Environment EDE 2 From the Project menu select Directories The Directories dialog box appears 3 Fill in the following fields e In the Executable Files Path field type the pathname of the directory where the executables are located The default directory is PRODDIR bin e In the Include Files Path field add the pathnames of the directories where the compiler and assembler should look for include files The default directory is PRODDIR include Separate pathnames with a semicolon The first path in the list is the first path where the compiler and assembler look for include files To change the search order simply change the order of pathnames 1 8 User s Manual e In the Library Files Path field add the pathnames of the directories where the linker should look for library files The default directory is PRODDIR Xlib Separate pathnames with a semicolon The first path
164. on first library first you can tell the linker to scan the libraries from left to right and extract symbols from the first library where the linker finds it This can be useful when you want to use newer versions of a library routine Example lkml6c first library first a a test obj b a If the file test obj calls a function which is both present in a a and b a normally the function in b a would be extracted With this option the linker first tries to extract the symbol from the first library a a 8 4 2 HOW THE LINKER SEARCHES LIBRARIES System libraries You can specify the location of system libraries specified with option D in several ways The linker searches the specified locations in the following order 1 The linker first looks in the directories that are specified in the Directories dialog L option If you specify the L option without a pathname the linker stops searching after this step Using the Linker 8 17 d gt When the linker did not find the library because it is not in the specified library directory or because no directory is specified it looks which paths were set during installation You can still change these paths if you like See environment variables LIBM16C in section 1 3 2 Configuring tbe Command Line Environment in Chapter Sofiware Installation When the linker did not find the library it tries the default 1ib directory relative to the installation directory User
165. on for run time error checking it must be executed Start CrossView Pro and run your application in simulation mode Run the program as usual the program should run normally taking the same input as usual and producing the same output as usual The application will run somewhat slower that normal because of the extra time spent on performing the error checks Small beap problem When the program does not run as usual this is typically caused by a shortage of heap space In this case an out of memory message is issued when running with file system simulation it is displayed in the FSSO Terminal window To solve this problem increase the size of the heap 1 From the Project menu select Project Options Tbe Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the Linker entry and select Stack Heap 3 Enter a new value for Heap size in bytes for example 1000 Below are a number of code examples which generate the possible errors for the several run time error checking options 5 9 3 EXAMPLES PRODUCING RUN TIME ERRORS Example 1 Bounds checking C source int sum int arr int n int total 0 for int i 0 i lt n itr total arr i return total 5 26 int distance int arrl User s Manual int arr2 if arr2 gt arrl return arr2 arrl else return arrl arr2 char inc char ptr return ptr 10 int deref char ptr return ptr int listl
166. on of options h Show on board flash program version version Example To erase the flash device and flash the file demo s at a baud rate of 38400 in a device connected at serial port COM2 using a command line interface type flashml6c actions FP baudrate 38400 com2 id 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 nodialog demo s 9 29 9 30 User s Manual UTILITIES INDEX ail TASKING M X3GaNI Index Index 3 Symbols M option 3 19 __asm syntax 3 20 _ asmfunc 3 37 __ atbit 3 7 __bita 3 13 _ BUILD _ 3 29 _ far 3 13 _ LITTLE ENDIAN _ 3 29 _ MODEL _ 3 29 __near 3 13 __paged 3 13 __REVISION _ 3 29 _ rom 3 13 __sfr 3 13 3 16 _ VERSION 3 29 A absolute address 3 18 absolute variable 3 18 addressing modes 4 6 architecture definition 8 21 archiver 9 23 invocation 9 23 options overview 9 24 arm16c 9 23 assembler setting options 7 6 assembler controls overview 4 16 assembler directives overview 4 14 assembler error messages 7 9 assembler options overview 7 6 assembly programming in C 3 20 assembly expressions 4 7 assembly functions 3 37 assembly syntax 4 3 auto_switch 3 31 backend compiler phase 5 5 optimization 5 5 board specification 8 22 bounds checking 5 21 build viewing results 2 17 bus definition 8 22 C ccall to jump optimization 5 9 ccm16c 9 4 CCM16COPT 9 8 character 4 4 clock 6 8 coalescer 5 8 5 9
167. on registers as if they were declared with the volatile qualifier In fact___sfr is treated as volatile _ bita Non initialized global SFR variables are not cleared at program startup For example _ sfr int i global SFR not cleared It is not allowed to initialize global SFR variables SFR variables are not initialized at startup For example _ sfr int j 10 not allowed to initialize global SFR See also compiler option C Use SFR definitions for CPU in section Compiler Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual 3 18 User s Manual 3 4 3 DECLARE A DATA OBJECT AT AN ABSOLUTE ADDRESS _ at Just like you can declare a variable in a specific part of memory you can also place an object at an absolute address in memory This may be useful to interface with other programs using fixed memory schemes or to access special function registers With the attribute __ at you can specify an absolute address Examples unsigned char Display 80 24 _ at 0x2000 The array Display is placed at address 0x2000 In the generated assembly an absolute section is created On this position space is reserved for the variable Display int myvar _ at 0x100 1 The variable myvar is placed at address 0x100 and is initialized at 1 void f void _at Oxf0ff 1 The function f is placed at address 0xf100 Restrictions Take note of the following restrictions if you place a variable at an absolute add
168. onally the Startup Code page and click OK to accept the processor options Processor options affect the invocation of all tools in the toolchain In EDE you only need to set them once The corresponding options for the assembler are listed in table 7 1 Based on the target processor the assembler includes a special function register file cegcpu sfr This is an include file written in C syntax which is shared by the compiler assembler and debugger Once the assembler reads an SFR file you can reference the special function registers SFR and bits within an SFR using symbols defined in the SFR file 7 6 User s Manual 7 To access the assembler options 1 From the Project menu select Project Options The Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the Assembler entry fill in the various pages and click OK to accept the project options The assembler command line equivalences of your EDE selections are shown simultaneously in the Options string box The following processor options are available EDE options Command line Processor Definition Select processor Ccpu Target R8C tiny instead of M16C 60 r8c Memory Internal memory EDE only Startup Code Add lt project gt _cstart src to your project EDE only Table 7 1 Processor options The following assembler options are available EDE options Command line Preprocessing Define user macro Dmacro def Includ
169. op with __ asm the whole loop must be contained in a single __ asm statement The same counts for conditional jumps As a rule of thumb all references to a label in an __ asm statement must be in that same statement Example 1 no input or output A simple example without input or output parameters You can just output any assembly instruction _ asm nop Generated code nop Example 2 using output parameters Assign the result of inline assembly to a variable With the constraint h a byte data register is chosen for the parameter the compiler decides which data register it uses The 0 in the instruction template is replaced with the name of this data register Finally the compiler generates code to assign the result to the output variable char result void main void _ asm mov b 0xFF 0 h result C Language 3 23 Generated assembly code mov b 0xFF ROH mov b ROH result Example 3 using input and output parameters Add two C variables and assign the result to a third C variable Data registers are used for the input and output parameters constraint r 1 for a and 2 for b in the instruction template and memory is used for the output parameter constraint m 0 for result in the instruction template The compiler generates code to move the input expressions into the input registers and to assign the result to the output variable int a b result void add2 void
170. operator is applied The result is a floating point value 4 10 User s Manual Type Oper Name Description ator parentheses Expressions enclosed by parenthesis are evaluated first Unary plus Returns the value of its operand minus Returns the negative of its operand complement Returns complement integer only logical negate Returns 1 if the operands value is 1 otherwise 0 For example if buf is 0 then buf is 1 Arithmetic multiplication Yields the product of two operands division Yields the quotient of the division of the first operand by the second With integers the divide operation produces a truncated integer modulo Integer only yields the remainder from a division of the first operand by the second addition Yields the sum of its operands subtraction Yields the difference of its operands Shift lt lt shift left Integer only shifts the left operand to the left zero filled by the number of bits specified by the right operand gt gt shift right Integer only shifts the left operand to the right sign bit extended by the number of bits specified by the right operand Relational lt less than If the indicated condition is lt less or equal True result is an integer 1 gt greater than False result is an integer O gt greater or equal Be cautious when you use floating equal not equal point values in an equality test roundin
171. ore you can specify this in EDE or you can specify this in a separate LSL file and pass both the LSL file that describes the core architecture and your LSL file that contains the memory specification to the linker In order to bypass the default memory setup your memory LSL file must contain a define __ NODEFAULTMEM and you must specify this file before the core architecture LSL file Adding memory using EDE In EDE you can only specify external memory if the processor does not run in single chip mode 1 From the Project menu select Project Options Tbe Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the Processor entry and select Processor Definition 8 30 User s Manual 3 Select Memory Expansion mode or Microprocessor mode or select User Defined in the Select processor box for a user defined processor 4 Open the Memory page 5 In the External Memory box add your memory for example my_nvram by specifying the type name start address and size 8 6 7 THE SECTION LAYOUT DEFINITION LOCATING SECTIONS Once you have defined the internal core architecture and optional memory you can actually define where your application must be located in the physical memory During compilation the compiler divides the application into sections Sections have a name an indication in which address space it should be located and attributes like writable or read only In the section layout definition you can exactl
172. ov w RO _result 3 26 User s Manual Example 7 accessing individual registers in a register pair You can access the individual registers in a register pair by adding a after the operand specifier in the assembly part followed by the index in the register pair int fl f2 void foo long l __asm mov w 32 0 0 n t mov w 32 1 1 m f1 m f2 R 1 The first mov w instruction uses index 0 of argument 2 which is a long placed in a RnRn register and the second mov w instruction uses index 1 The input operand is located in register pair R2R0 The assembly output becomes mov w RO _fl mov w R2 _f2 rts If the index is not a valid index for example the register is not a register pair or the argument has not a register constraint the is passed into the assembly output This way you can still use the in assembly instructions C Language 3 27 3 7 CONTROLLING THE COMPILER PRAGMAS Pragmas are keywords in the C source that control the behavior of the compiler Pragmas overrule compiler options The syntax is pragma pragma spec ON OFF DEFAULT or _Pragma pragma spec ON OFF DEFAULT For example you can set a compiler option to specify which optimizations the compiler should perform With the pragma optimize flags you can set an optimization level for a specific part of the C source This overrules the general optimization level that i
173. ove an object module to anotber position To move mod3 obj to the beginning of the library position it just before cstart obj arml6c mb cstart obj mylib a mod3 obj Delete an object module from tbe library To delete the object module cstart obj from the library mylib a arml6c d mylib a cstart obj Extract all modules from tbe library Extract all modules from the library mylib a arml6c x mylib a Using the Utilities 9 27 9 5_ FLASH UTILITY With the flash utility flashm16c you can load an ELF Intel Hex or Motorola S record file in a flash device Configure flash settings from EDE You can configure all flash settings from EDE 1 From the Project menu select Project Options The Project Options dialog appears 2 Expand the Flasher entry and select Flasher Settings 3 Select serial or USB communication 4 Select the flash actions You can perform several actions with the flash tool Blank check Select this to check if the flash device is properly erased Full erase Select this to erase the entire flash memory Program Select this to program the flash device with the specified file Verify Select this to compare a Motorola S record file or other absolute file with the content of the FLASH 9 5 1 CALLING THE FLASH UTILITY You can call the flash utitlity from the command line or from EDE The invocation syntax is flashml6c option file If you invoke flashm16c with the nodialog co
174. ove new modules after existing a name module name Append or move new modules before b name existing module name Create library without notification if library C does not exist Preserve last modified date from the library 0 Print symbols in library modules s 0 1 Replace only newer modules u Verbose V Using the Utilities 9 25 Description Option Sub option Miscellaneous Display options Display version header V Read options from file f file Suppress warnings above level n wn Table 9 4 Overview of archiver options and sub options d gt For a complete list and description of all archiver options see section 4 6 Archiver Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual 9 4 2 EXAMPLES Create a new library If you add modules to a library that does not yet exist the library is created To create a new library with the name mylib a and add the object modules cstart obj and calc obj to it arml6c r mylib a cstart obj calc obj Add a new module to an existing library If you add a new module to an existing library the module is added at the end of the module If the module already exists in the library it is replaced arml6c r mylib a mod3 obj Print a list of object modules in tbe library To inspect the contents of the library arml6c t mylib a The library has the following contents cstart obj calc obj mod3 obj 9 26 User s Manual M
175. pile assemble and link your application manually make sure you specify the correct library See Section 8 4 Linking with Libraries in Chapter Using the Linker for an overview of the profiling libraries 6 2 2 STEP 2 EXECUTE THE APPLICATION Once you have compiled and linked the application for profiling it must be executed to generate the profiling data Run the program as usual the program should run normally taking the same input as usual and producing the same output as usual The application may run somewhat slower than normal because of the extra time spent on collecting the profiling data Startup code The startup code initializes the profiling functions by calling the function _ prof init EDE will automatically make the required modifications to the startup code Or when you use the control program this extracts the correct startup code from the C library If you use your own startup code you must manually insert a call to the function __ prof_init just before the call to _main and its stack setup An application can have multiple entry points such as main and other functions that are called by interrupt This does not affect the profiling process 6 10 User s Manual Small beap problem When the program does not run as usual this is typically caused by a shortage of heap space In this case an out of memory message is issued When running with file system simulation it is displayed on the Debug con
176. plication TASKING offers a number of simulators and target hardware debuggers Toolchain overview You can use all tools in the toolchain from the embedded development environment EDE and from the command line in a Command Prompt window or a UNIX shell The next illustration shows all components of the M16C toolchain with their input and output files Getting Started C source file error messages err e list file error messages ers lst linker map file map F error messages elk CC C compiler cpm16c C source file C source file c ie hand coded C compiler cm16c assembly file assembly file asm src hand coded assembler asm16c archiver I relocatable object file arm16c e obj relocatable object library a m gt relocatable linker object file eln 7 linker script file linker lsl Ikm16c relocatable linker object file e1n memory definition file mdf Intel Hex absolute object file hex Y ELF DWARF 2 absolute object file elf Motorola S record absolute object file S CrossView Pro debugger xfwm16c l execution environment 2 5 Figure 2 2 M16C toolchain User s Manual The following table lists the file types used by the M16C toolchain Extension Description Source file
177. put file They are meant to draw your attention to assumptions of the assembler for a situation which may not be correct You can control warnings in the Assembler Diagnostics page of the Project Project Options menu assembler option w Display detailed information on diagnostics 1 In the Help menu enable the option Show Help on Tool Errors 2 In the Build tab of the Output window double click on an error or warning message A description of tbe selected message appears Ee asml6c diag format all number See assembler option diag in section 4 2 Assembler Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual USING THE LINKER ail TASKING M diLdVHO Using the Linker 8 3 8 1 INTRODUCTION The linker Ikm16c is a combined linker locator The linker phase combines relocatable object files obj files generated by the assembler and libraries into a single relocatable linker object file e1n The locator phase assigns absolute addresses to the linker object file and creates an absolute object file which you can load into a target processor From this point the term linker is used for the combined linker locator The linker takes the following files for input and output relocatable object files obj m relocatable linker object file eln relocatable object library a linker script file 1s1 gt linker H linker map file
178. r 0060084dfbe9 or use Imhostid Table 1 2 Determine the host ID On Windows the License Administrator licadmin helps you in the process of obtaining your license key amp If you do not have the program licadmin you can download it from our Web site at http www tasking com support flexlm licadmin zip It is also on every product CD that includes FLEXlm in directory licensing 1 4 6 HOW TO DETERMINE THE HOST NAME To retrieve the host name of a machine use one of the following methods Platform Method UNIX hostname Windows NT licadmin or Go to the Control Panel open Network In the Identification tab look for Computer Name Windows XP 2000 licadmin or Go to the Control Panel open System In the Computer Name tab look for Full computer name Table 1 3 Determine the bost name 1 18 INSTALLATION User s Manual GETTING STARTED ail TASKING M diLdVHO Getting Started 2 3 2 1 INTRODUCTION With the TASKING M16C suite you can write compile assemble link and locate applications for the several M16C cores Embedded Development Environment The TASKING Embedded Development Environment EDE is a Windows application that facilitates working with the tools in the toolchain and also offers project management and an integrated editor EDE has three main functions Edit Project management Build and Deb
179. r anywhere in the 20 bit space objects can be of any size e paged anywhere in the 20 bit space objects must be smaller than 64 kB and will never cross 64k boundaries e _ near first 64k e _ bita first 8k the bitaddressable space Most M16C instructions can address operands in memory only if they lie in the first 64k For far addresses expensive load store instructions are needed For this reason using __ near gualified variables generates much faster code than using __ far or __ paged variables A pointer to a __ near qualified object fits in one 16 bit address register for a pointer to a __ far or __ paged object the double register A1A0 is needed Also pointer arithmetic for __ near pointers is much faster __ paged qualified objects are guaranteed not to be allocated accross 64k boundaries Therefor pointer arithmetic on pointers to paged memory only requires updates of the AO register For pointers to far memory both A1 and A0 need to be altered So pointer arithmetic is often twice as fast for pointers to paged memory The stack lies always in the first 64k bytes so a variable on the stack is implicitly __ near gualified This means that automatic variables are always fastest regardless of the chosen memory model Objects qualified with __ bita are bit addressable This means that setting and getting individual bits can be done with the fast bit instructions of the M16C C Language 3 5 String and Constant Allocation
180. ragma smartinline By default small fuctions that are not too often called are inlined This reduces execution time at the cost of code size compiler option Oi With the pragma noinline pragma smartinline you can temporarily disable this optimization With the compiler options inline max incr and inline max size you have more control over the function inlining process of the compiler d gt See for more information of these options section Compiler Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual 3 36 User s Manual Combining inline with __asm to create intrinsic functions With the keyword __ asm it is possible to use assembly instructions in the body of an inline function Because the compiler inserts the assembly body at the place the function is called you can create your own intrinsic function d gt See section 3 6 Using Assembly in tbe C Source for more information about the __ asm keyword Example 6 in that section shows how to inline assembly functions with the inline keyword 3 12 4 INTRINSIC FUNCTIONS Some specific M16C assembly instructions have no eguivalence in C Intrinsic functions give the possibility to use these instructions Intrinsic functions are predefined functions that are recognized by the compiler The compiler then generates the most efficient assembly code for these functions The compiler always inlines the corresponding assembly instructions in the assembly source ra
181. raries for the M16C and the R8C 3 14 1 OVERVIEW OF LIBRARIES The following tables lists the libraries included in the M16C toolchain for the M16C and R8C processors Library to link Description libcs a C library for small medium or large memory model libcm a Some functions reguire the floating point library Also libcl a includes the startup code libcss a Single precision C library for small medium or large memory libcms a model compiler option F libcls a Some functions require the floating point library Also includes the startup code libfps a Floating point library non trapping for each model libfpm a libfpl a libfpst a Floating point library trapping for each model libfpmt a Control program option fp trap libfplt a librts a Run time library for each model librtm a librtl a Table 3 11 Overview of M16C libraries C Language 3 45 db Library to link Description libc a C library Some functions require the floating point library Also includes the startup code libcs a Single precision C library compiler option F Some functions require the floating point library Also includes the startup code libfp a Floating point library non trapping libfpt a Floating point library trapping Control program option fp trap librt a Run time library Table 3 12 Overview of R8C libraries See section 2 2 Libr
182. rates file inclusion and macro facilities See section 4 10 Macro Operations in Chapter Assembly Language for more information 7 4 User s Manual a 7 3 ASSEMBLER OPTIMIZATIONS The asm16c assembler performs various optimizations to reduce the size of the assembled applications To enable or disable optimizations 1 From the Project menu select Project Options The Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the Assembler entry and select Optimization You can enable or disable the optimizations described below The command line option for each optimization is given in brackets d gt See also option O optimize in section 4 2 Assembler Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual Instruction alignment option Oa OA When this option is enabled the assembler aligns instructions with an even size on even addresses Odd sized instructions are not aligned Allow generic instructions option Og OG When this option is enabled you can use generic instructions in your assembly source The assembler tries to replace the generic instructions by faster or smaller instructions For example the generic instruction jeq _labellis replaced by jne _ Tl jz labell _ Tl By default this option is enabled Because shorter instructions may influence the number of cycles you may want to disable this option when you have written timed code In that case the assembler encodes all instructions as they are
183. re used to extract the most optimal implementation of a function from the library For example if your application does not use floating point variables the prinf alike functions do not support floating point types either The compiler emits strong symbols to guide this process Do not change the order in which modules are placed in the library since this may break this process The sources of the libraries are present in the 1ibXsrc directory This directory also contains subdirectories with a makefile for each type of library lib srec ml6c libcl makefile libcm makefile libcs makefile librtl makefile librtm makefile librts makefile r8c libc makefile librt makefile To rebuild the libraries follow the next steps C Language 3 47 First make sure that the bin directory for the toolchain is included in your PATH environment variable See section 1 3 2 Configuring tbe Command Line Environment 1 Make the directory libNsrcXMml6cXlibcl the current working directory This directory contains a makefile which also uses the default make rules from mkm16c mk from the cm16c etc directory 2 Editthe makefile d gt See section 9 3 Make Utility in Chapter Utilities for an extensive description of the make utility and makefiles 3 Assuming the lib srce ml6c libcl directory is still the current working directory type mkm16c to build the library The new library is created in the lib src ml6c libcl directory 4 M
184. ress e The argument of the __ at attribute must be a constant address expression e You can place only variables with static storage at absolute addresses Parameters of functions or automatic variables within functions cannot be placed at absolute addresses e When declared extern the variable is not allocated by the compiler When the same variable is defined within another module but on a different address the compiler assembler or linker will not notice e When the variable is declared static no public symbol will be generated normal C behavior e You cannot place structure members at absolute addresses e Absolute variables cannot overlap each other If you define two absolute variables at the same address the assembler and or linker issues an error The compiler does not check this C Language 3 19 e When you define the same absolute variable within two modules this produces conflicts during link time An extern declaration in one module and a definition of the same variable in another module is of course possible 3 5 MEMORY MODELS The M16C C compiler cm16c supports three reentrant memory models small medium and large You can select one of these models with the compiler option M If no memory model is specified on the command line cm16c uses the small model because this model generates the most efficient code The following table illustrates the meaning of each data model
185. ributes data and clear to store uninitialized data objects The section attributes tell the linker to locate the section in address space data and that the section content should be filled with zeros at startup As a result of the pragma renamesect DA non volatile noclear the data objects between the pragma pair are placed in non volatile CLR DA data noclear Note that because battery back upped sections should not be cleared we used the noclear attribute The generated assembly may look like extern code printf extern code printf_int extern code START defsect bat_CO code sect pat_CO global _main 8 32 Function _main _main type cmp w jeg jsr rts size End func 42480 2 battery backup_tag _printf _main main of function ij End of section defsect bat CLR DA data clear sect bat _CLR DA global _uninitialized data b_uninitialized data type object size b_uninitialized data 2 ds 2 b_initialized data End of section defsect bat INI_ DA data init sect bat INI_ DA global initialized data type object size binitialized data 2 dw 1 End of section defsect sect global battery backup non volatile CLR DA data noclear non volatile CLR DA battery backup tag tag type object size ds global battery backup battery backup _tag 2 2 battery _backup_invok invok type object
186. rning messages because this may indicate a coding error Subscript strength reduction option Os OS An array of pointer subscripted with a loop iterator variable or a simple linear function of the iterator variable is replaced by the dereference of a pointer that is updated whenever the iterator is updated Loop transformations option Ol OL Temporarily transform a loop with the entry point at the bottom to a loop with the entry point at the top This enables constant propagation in the initial loop test and code motion of loop invariant code by the CSE optimization Forward store option Oo OO A temporary variable is used to cache multiple assignments stores to the same non automatic variable Core specific optimizations backend Coalescer option Oa OA The coalescer seeks for possibilities to reduce the number of moves MOV instruction by smart use of registers This optimizes both speed as code size Interprocedural register optimization option Ob OB Register allocation is improved by taking note of register usage in functions called by a given function Using the Compiler Peephole optimizations option Oy OY The generated assembly code is improved by replacing instruction sequences by equivalent but faster and or shorter sequences or by deleting unnecessary instructions Generic assembly optimizations option Og OG A set of target independent optimizations that increase spee
187. s CC C source file input for the C compiler Cc C source file input for the C compiler asm Assembler source file hand coded Isl Linker script file using the Linker Script Language Generated source files ic SIC C source file generated by the C compiler input for the C compiler Assembler source file generated by the C compiler does not contain macros Object files Obj ELF DWARF relocatable object file generated by the assembler a Archive with ELF DWARF object files eln Relocatable linker output file elf ELF DWARF absolute object file generated by the locating part of the linker hex Absolute Intel Hex object file S Absolute Motorola S record object file List files st Assembler list file map Linker map file mdf Memory definition file mcr MISRA C report file Error list files err ers elk Compiler error messages file Assembler error messages file Linker error messages file Table 2 1 File extensions Getting Started 2 7 2 2 WORKING WITH PROJECTS IN EDE EDE is a complete project environment in which you can create and maintain project spaces and projects EDE gives you direct access to the tools and features you need to create an application from your project A project space holds a set of projects and must always contain at least one project Before you can create a project you have to setup a project space All informatio
188. s are a way to control the compiler from within the C source Chapter 4 Assembly Language Describes the specific features of the assembly language as well as directives which are pseudo instructions that are interpreted by the assembler Chapter 5 Using the Compiler Describes how you can use the compiler An extensive overview of all options is included in the Reference Manual Chapter 6 Profiling Profiling is a method of gathering data about the amount of time function execution takes and how many times functions are called This profiling implementation is code instrumention based which means that the compiler adds extra code which gathers the requested data during execution of the program This chapter explains this profiling method into detail Chapter 7 Using the Assembler Describes how you can use the assembler An extensive overview of all options is included in the Reference Manual Manual Purpose and Structure XIII Chapter 8 Using the Linker Describes how you can use the linker An extensive overview of all options is included in the Reference Manual Chapter 9 Using the Utilities Describes several utilities and how you can use them to facilitate various tasks The following utilities are included control program make utility and archiver XIV User s Manual CONVENTIONS USED IN THIS MANUAL Notation for syntax The following notation is used to describe the syntax of command line i
189. s dialog I option 3 The paths which were set during installation You can still change these paths d gt See section 1 3 1 Configuring the Embedded Development Environment and environment variable CM16CINC in section 1 3 2 Configuring the Command Line Environment in Chapter Software Installation 4 The default include directory relative to the installation directory 5 6 COMPILING FOR DEBUGGING Compiling your files is the first step to get your application ready to run on a target However during development of your application you first may want to debug your application To create an object file that can be used for debugging you must instruct the compiler to include symbolic debug information in the source file To include symbolic debug information 1 From the Project menu select Project Options 5 16 User s Manual Tbe Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the C Compiler entry and select Debug Information 3 Enable the option Generate debug information 4 Click OK to accept the new project settings Eg cml6c g Debug and optimizations Due to different compiler optimizations it might be possible that certain debug information is optimized away Therefore it is best to specify Debug purpose O1 when you want to debug your application This is a special optimization level where the source code is still suitable for debugging 1 From the Project menu select Project Options Tbe
190. s set in the C compiler Optimization page in the Project Options dialog of EDE command line option O The compiler recognizes the following pragmas other pragmas are ignored Pragma name Description alias symbol defined symbol Defines an alias for a symbol align Specifies object alignment align data See compiler option align in section align func 4 1 Compiler Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual auto switch Specifies switch statement jump switch See section 3 11 Switch Statement linear_switch lookup_switch clear Specifies clearing of non initialized noclear static public variables extension isuffix Enables the language extension to specify imaginary floating point constants by adding an i to the constant extern symbol Forces an external reference inline Specifies function inlining noinline See section 3 12 3 Inlining Functions smartinline 3 28 User s Manual Pragma name Description macro nomacro Specifies macro expansion message string Emits a message to standard output optimize flags endoptimize Controls compiler optimizations See section 5 3 Compiler Optimizations in Chapter Using the Compiler renamesect spec Changes section names endrenamesect See section 3 13 Section Naming and compiler option R in section 4 1 Compiler Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual source Spec
191. sole To solve this problem increase the size of the heap 1 From the Project menu select Project Options Tbe Project Options dialog box appears 2 Expand the Linker entry and select Stack Heap 3 Enter a new value for Heap size in bytes After execution When the program has finished returning from main the exit code calls the function __ prof_cleanup This function writes the gathered profiling data to a file on the host system using the debugger s file system simulation features If your program does 7701 return from main you can force this by inserting a call to the function __ prof cleanup in your application source code Please note the double underscores when calling from C code The resulting profiling data file is named amon prf This file is written to the current working directory LAN If your program does not run under control of the debugger and therefore cannot use the file simulation system FSS functionality to write a file to the host system you must implement a way to pass the profiling data gathered on the target to the host Adapt the function prof cleanup in the profiling libraries or the underlying I O functions for this purpose C Language 6 11 6 2 3 STEP 3 DISPLAYING PROFILING RESULTS The result of the profiler can be displayed in EDE 1 Return to the EDE window 2 In EDE from the Build menu select Profile The Select Profile Files dialog appears Normally profi
192. space in both ROM and RAM for all possible RAM memory spaces This is because the initializers are stored in ROM and copied to RAM at start up An exception is when an initialized variable resides in ROM by means of the __ rom memory type qualifier or when you specify the option romconstants to force constants in rom Examples int i 100 2 bytes in far rom and 2 bytes in ram _ rom int j 3 2 bytes in rom no ram _ rom char a HELP 5 bytes in rom no ram Option romconstants enabled const _ far int i 100 2 bytes in far rom only d gt See also the next section 3 10 Strings 3 10 STRINGS A string is defined as a separate occurrence of a string in a C program Array variables initialized with strings can have storage gualifiers and are not the same as strings See also section 3 9 Initialized Variables By default strings are copied from ROM to RAM at start up However string literals in a C source program which are not used to initialize an array have static storage duration and the ISO C standard does not reguire these strings to be modifiable Therefore allocating strings in ROM only is allowed With compiler option romstrings the compiler will place strings in the ROM area Examples char world hello 5 bytes in far rom 5 bytes in ram Option romstrings enabled in large memory model char world hello 5 bytes in far rom only C L
193. ss is an offset on a given internal or external bus Additionally the architecture definition contains information about items such as the hardware stack and the interrupt vector table This specification is normally written by Altium For the M16C core architecture a separate LSL file is provided m16c 1s1 For the R8C core architecture a separate LSL file is provided r8c 1s1 The architecture definition of the LSL file should not be changed by you unless you also modify the core s hardware architecture If the LSL file describes a multi core system an architecture definition must be available for each different type of core The derivative definition required The derivative definition describes the configuration of the internal on chip bus and memory system Basically it tells the linker how to convert offsets on the buses specified in the architecture definition into offsets in internal memory A derivative definition must be present in an LSL file Microcontrollers and DSPs often have internal memory and I O sub systems apart from one or more cores The design of such a chip is called a derivative When you design an FPGA together with a PCB the components on the FPGA become part of the board design and there is no need to distinguish between internal and external memory For this reason you probably do not need to work with derivative definitions at all There are however two situations where derivative definitions are useful
194. st obj depends on test src 3 If test src does exist the make utility now creates test obj by executing the rule for it asml6c test src 4 There are no other files necessary to create test elf so the make utility now can use test obj to create test elf by executing the rule lkml6c otest elf test obj lcs lfps lrts The make utility has now built test e1 but it only used the assembler to update test obj and the linker to create test elf If you compare this to the control program ccml6c test c This invocation has the same effect but now d files are recompiled assembled linked and located Using the Utilities 9 11 9 3 1 CALLING THE MAKE UTILITY You can only call the make utility from the command line The invocation syntax is mkml6c options targets macro def For example mkml6c test elf target You can specify any target that is defined in the makefile A target can also be one of the intermediate files specified in the makefile macro def Macro definition This definition remains fixed for the mkm16c invocation It overrides any regular definitions for the specified macro within the makefiles and from the environment It is inherited by subordinate mkm16c s but act as an environment variable for these That is depending on the e setting it may be overridden by a makefile definition Exit status The make utility returns an exit status of 1 when it halts as a result of an error Oth
195. t files of the compilation step are available in your project directory To compile your program click either one of the following buttons Compiles and assembles the currently selected file This results in a relocatable object file obj Builds your entire project but looks whether there are already files available that are needed in the building process If so these files will not be generated again which saves time Builds your entire project unconditionally All steps necessary to obtain the final e1f file are performed To only check for syntax errors click the following button y Checks the currently selected file for syntax errors but does not generate code Select a target processor core Because the toolchain supports several processor cores you need to choose a processor type first To access the M16C processor options 1 Bo From the Project menu select Project Options Tbe Project Options dialog box appears Expand the Processor entry and select Processor Definition In the Select processor list select the target processor Optional Fill in the Startup Code page Click OK to accept the processor options Processor options affect tbe invocation of all tools in the toolchain In EDE you only need to set them once The corresponding options for the compiler are listed in table 5 1 Using the Compiler 5 11 Based on the target processor the compiler includes a special function re
196. t fit decreasing algorithm Ol OL on off Use copy table compression Ot OT Compress ROM image Oz OZ Delete unreferenced sections Oc OC Delete duplicate code Ox OX Delete duplicate constant data Oy OY Map File Generate a map file map M Suboptions for the Generate a map file option mflags Warnings Report all warnings Suppress all warnings Suppress specific warnings Treat warnings as errors no option w W wnum num warnings as errors Miscellaneous Use standard copy table for initialization Strip symbolic debug information Dump processor and memory info from LSL file Select linker script file Additional linker options no option i S lsl dump file dfile options Table 8 2 Linker options Using the Linker The following options are only available on the command line Description Command line Display invocation syntax Define preprocessor macro Specify a symbol as unresolved external Redirect errors to a file with extension e1k Read options from file Scan libraries in given order Search only in L directories not in default path Keep output files after errors Link only do not locate Check LSL file s and exit Activate muncher in pre locate phase Do not generate ROM copy Locate all ROM sections in RAM Link incrementally Display version header only Print the name of each file as it is processed D
197. t is enclosed in double quotes then n is interpreted as a newline character t is interpreted as a tab Nooo is interpreted as an octal value where ooo is one to three octal digits and spaces are taken literally For example separate n prog obj sub obj results in prog obj sub obj Function arguments may be macros or functions themselves SO separate n match obj yields all object files the current target depends on separated by a newline string The protect function adds one level of guoting This function has one argument which can contain white space If the argument contains any white space single guotes double guotes or backslashes it is enclosed in double guotes In addition any double guote or backslash is escaped with a backslash Using the Utilities 9 21 Example echo protect I ll show you the protect function yields echo I ll show you the protect function exist The exist function expands to its second argument if the first argument is an existing file or directory Example S exist test c ccml6c test c When the file test c exists it yields ccml6c test c When the file test c does not exist nothing is expanded nexist The nexist function is the opposite of the exist function It expands to its second argument if the first argument is not an existing file or directory Example nexist test src ccml6c test c Conditional Proc
198. t the __ paged gualifier implicitly so they can be put in ROM Other variables get the __ near gualifier for optimal performance By default pointers are implicitly __ paged gualified so they can point to both constants and variables Variables that do not fit in near memory can easily be qualified as __ paged as this leads to no problems with default pointers and library calls For before mentioned reasons the medium memory model is the default 3 6 User s Manual Strategies As explained above allocating everything in the near memory space by using the small memory model yields the fastest and most compact code However for larger projects this obviously is not an option To reap some of the benefits though you can use memory gualifiers to force freguently used and or small variables in near memory and rarely used and or large variables in far memory One strategy is to use the small memory model but qualify large objects as __paged or __ far when absolutely necessary Far pointers cannot be cast to near pointers The compiler will check this but it can be inconvenient especially for library calls Another strategy is the other way around use the arge memory model and gualify where possible variables as __ near Be careful with pointers though default pointers are __ far qualified and will produce inefficient code if used with __ near objects 3 2 2 BIT PROGRAMMING The M16C has efficicient instructions
199. tains data to be placed in ROM _ rom fit65536 PG section fits in a 64 kB page __paged Table 3 10 Section attributes and attr section name suffixes Rename sections You can change the default section names with the following pragma pragma renamesect mem name attribute __at address C Language 3 43 d gt The new name replaces the module name part of the section names that have type mem With the optional attribute you can overrule the section attribute With the optional __ at keyword you can place a section at an absolute address For example pragma renamesect DA flash clear _ at 0x20 All sections of type data have the name flash_attr_DA and have attribute clear and at 0x20 The following pragma restores the default section naming for type mem pragma endrenamesect mem See also compiler option R in section Compiler Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual 3 44 User s Manual 3 14 LIBRARIES The TASKING C compiler comes with standard C libraries ISO IEC 9899 1999 and header files with the appropriate prototypes for the library functions The standard C libraries are available in object format and in C or assembly source code A number of standard operations within C are too complex to generate inline code for These operations are implemented as run time library functions The lib directory of the toolchain contains subdirectories with separate lib
200. th concatenation adjacent alphanumeric characters Return decimal Substitutes the symbol seguence with a value of symbol character string that represents the decimal value of the symbol 96 Return hex Substitutes the 96symbol seguence with a value of symbol character string that represents the hexadecimal value of the symbol Macro string delimiter Allows the use of macro arguments as literal strings Causes local labels in its term to be evaluated at normal scope rather than at macro scope Macro local label override Argument Concatenation Operator Consider the following macro definition SWAP_REG MACRO REG1 REG2 XCHG B R REG1 H R REG2 H ENDM Swap register contents The macro is called as follows SWAP REG 0 1 The macro expands as follows XCHG B ROH R1H The macro preprocessor substitutes the character 0 for the argument REG1 and the character 1 for the argument REG2 The concatenation operator indicates to the macro preprocessor that the substitution characters for the arguments are to be concatenated with the character R Without the operator the macro would expand as XCHG B RREG1H RREG2H Assembly Language 4 23 which results in an assembler error invalid operand Decimal value Operator Instead of substituting the formal arguments with the actual macro call arguments you can also use the value of the macro call arguments Consider th
201. the C compiler adds a leading underscore when it generates an assembly function with __ asmfunc the C compiler does not add the extra underscore Example prototype of assembly function extern _ asmfunc int special out int port long config int value void main void long cfg int y if special out 1 cfg y call assembly function The number of arguments that can be passed is limited by the number of available registers See section 3 12 1 Parameter Passing If too many arguments are used the compiler will issue an error 3 38 User s Manual 3 12 6 INTERRUPT FUNCTIONS d gt The TASKING M16C C compiler supports a number of function gualifiers and keywords to program interrupt service routines ISR An interrupt service routine or interrupt function or interrupt handler is called when an interrupt event or service request occurs This can be a software interrupt or a hardware interrupt A software interrupt occurs when certain instructions are executed Software interrupt are non maskable which means that the interrupt cannot be enable or disabled by the interrupt enable flag I flag or that its interrupt priority cannot be changed by priority level A hardware interrupt can be a special non maskable interrupt for example an interrupt triggered by a watchdog timer or a peripheral function interrupt generated by a microcomputer s internal function Peripheral
202. the License Administrator to do this for you In the License Administrator follow the steps to Point to a FLEXIm License Server to get your licenses If you already have installed FLEXIm v8 4 or higher for example as part of another product you can skip this step and continue with step 4 Otherwise install SW000098 the Flexible License Manager FLEXlm on the license server where you want to use the license manager It is not recommended to run a license manager on a Windows 95 or Windows 98 machine Use Windows XP NT or 2000 instead or use UNIX or Linux If FLEXIm has already been installed as part of a non TASKING product you have to make sure that the bin directory of the FLEXIm product contains a copy of the Tasking daemon This file is present on every product CD that includes FLEXlm in directory licensing On the license server also add the license key to the license file Follow the same instructions as with Add a license key to a local license file in step 2 See the FLEXIm PDF manual delivered with SW000098 which is present on each TASKING product CD for more information 1 16 User s Manual 1 4 4 MODIFYING THE LICENSE FILE LOCATION db The default location for the license file on Windows is c flexlm license dat On UNIX this is usr local flexlm licenses license dat If you want to use another name or directory for the license file each user must define the environment variable LM_LICENSE_FIL
203. ther than calling the function This avoids unnecessary paramcter passing and register saving instructions which are normally necessary when a function is called Intrinsic functions produce very efficient assembly code Though it is possible to inline assembly code by hand registers are used even more efficient by intrinsic functions At the same time your C source remains very readable Intrinsic functions do not limit the optimization possibilities of the compiler opposed to assembly that is hand coded with __ asm You can use intrinsic functions in C as if they were ordinary C library functions All intrinsics begin with a double underscore character The following example illustrates the use of an intrinsic function and its resulting assembly code char g q _divb g 10 3 return quotient of divide The resulting assembly code is inlined rather than being called mov w 10 RO div b 3 mov b ROL q C Language 3 37 d gt For extended information about all available intrinsic functions refer to section 1 5 Intrinsic Functions in Chapter C Language of the Reference Manudal 3 12 5 CALLING ASSEMBLY FUNCTIONS _ asmfunc For a fixed register based interface between C and assembly functions the function qualifier __ asmfunc is available You can use this function gualifier for a prototype of an assembly function to be called from C or for a function definition of a C function to be called from assembly Normally
204. tions are available EDE options Command line Memory Models Compile using small medium large memory model M s m I Code Generation Keep strings in ROM romstrings Keep constants in ROM romconstants ROM is available in first 64k of memory near rom Generate code for fixed interrupt vector novector Generate frame for interrupt routines noframe Preprocessing Define user macro Dmacro def Include an extra file at the beginning of the C source Hfile Store the C compiler preprocess output file pre Eflag Alignment Align functions to an even address align func Align data to an even address align data Optimization Optimization level O 0 1 2 3 Custom optimization Oflag Optimize for size speed t 0 4 Language ISO C standard 90 or 99 default 99 c 90 99 Treat char variables as unsigned instead of signed u Using the Compiler Floating point trap exception handling EDE options Command line Treat int bitfield as signed signed bitfields Treat enumerated types always as integer integer enumeration Language extensions Aflag Allow C style comments in C source Ap Check assignment constant string to Ax non constant string pointer Debug Generate debug information g Floating Point Use single precision floating point only F control program option fp trap Diagnostics
205. tore the C compiler preprocess output file pre Eflag Memory models Select memory model M s m I Code generation Select CPU type Ccpu Generate symbolic debug information g Target R8C instead of M16C 60 r8c Libraries Add library directory Ldir Add library llib Ignore the default search path for libraries ignore default library path Using the Utilities Description Option Do not include default list of libraries no default libraries Use trapped floating point library fp trap Input files Specify linker script file d file Read options from file f file Add include directory ldir Output files Redirect diagnostic messages to a file error file Select final output file relocatable output file cl object file s co assembly file s cs Specify linker output format ELF IHEX SREC format type Set the address size for linker IHEX SREC files address size n Set linker output space name space name Keep output file s after errors k Do not generate linker map file no map file Specify name of output file o file Do not delete intermediate temporary files t Table 9 1 Overview of control program options For a complete list and description of all control program options see section 4 4 Control Program Options in Chapter Tool Options of the Reference Manual The options in table 9 1 are options that the control program interprets itself
206. ts the value of 3 hex r r MOV W CON1 020H R1 Move contents of address 023H to register R1 Valid symbol names Invalid symbol names loop _l1 1 loop starts with a number ENTRY RO reserved register name a Bc DEFINE reserved directive name aBC Assembly Language 4 7 4 6_ ASSEMBLY EXPRESSIONS An expression is a combination of symbols constants operators and parentheses which represent a value that is used as an operand of an assembler instruction or directive Expressions can contain user defined labels and their associated integer or floating point values and any combination of integers floating point numbers or ASCII literal strings Expressions follow the conventional rules of algebra and boolean arithmetic Expressions that can be evaluated at assembly time are called absolute expressions Expressions where the result is unknown until all sections have been combined and located are called relocatable or relative expressions When any operand of an expression is relocatable the entire expression is relocatable Relocatable expressions are emitted in the object file and are evaluated by the linker Relocatable expressions can only contain integral functions floating point functions and numbers are not supported by the ELF DWARF object format The assembler evaluates expressions with 64 bit precision in two s complement An expression can be any of the following numeric contant
207. u command Insert the CD ROM into the CD ROM drive Mount the CD ROM on a directory for example cdrom See the Linux manual pages about mount for details Go to the directory on which the CD ROM is mounted cd cdrom To install or upgrade all products at once issue the following command dpkg i sw deb This will install or upgrade all products in a subdirectory of the default installation directory usr local Tar gz Installation 1 Login as a user Be sure you have read write and execute permissions in the installation directory Otherwise login as root or use the su command Insert the CD ROM into the CD ROM drive Mount the CD ROM on a directory for example cdrom See the Linux manual pages about mount for details Go to the directory on which the CD ROM is mounted cd cdrom To install the products from the tar gz files in the directory usr local issue the following command for each product tar xzf SWproduct version tar gz C usr local Every tar gz file creates a single directory in the directory where it is extracted 1 6 User s Manual 1 2 3 INSTALLATION FOR UNIX HOSTS 1 Login as a user Be sure you have read write and execute permissions in the installation directory Otherwise login as root or use the su command If you are a first time user decide where you want to install the product By default it will be installed in usr local Insert the CD ROM into the CD
208. u specify the register type for a parameter In the example above the r is used to force the use of registers Rn for the parameters a and b You can reserve the registers that are already used in the assembly instructions either in the parameter lists or in the reserved register list register_save_list also called clobber list The compiler takes account of these lists so no unnecessary register saves and restores are placed around the inline assembly instructions Constraint Type Operand Remark character a address register AO A1 word register A address register A1A0 double word register b bit R 0 3 H 0 7 bit registers variables R O 3 L 0 7 A 0 1 0 7 C _bitvar h data register R 0 3 H byte registers R O 3 L i immediate value value m memory address label memory variable or _ variable function address 3 22 User s Manual Constraint Type Operand Remark character r data register R 0 3 word registers R registers R2R0 R3R1 double word registers number other operand same as used when input and 9enumber output operands must be the same Table 3 4 Available input output operand constraints Loops and conditional jumps The compiler does not detect loops with multiple __ asm statements or conditional jumps across __ asm statements and will generate incorrect code for the registers involved If you want to create a lo
209. ude files The assembler first looks in these directories then always looks in the default include directory relative to the installation directory CCM16CBIN With this variable you specify the directory in which the control program ccm16c looks for the executable tools The path you specify here should match the path that you specified for the PATH variable CCM16COPT With this variable you specify options and or arguments to each invocation of the control program ccm16c The control program processes these arguments before the command line arguments LIBM16C LIBR8C With this variable you specify one or more alternative directories in which the linker Ikm16c looks for library files for a specific core The linker first looks in these directories then always looks in the default 1ib directory 1 10 User s Manual Environment Description Variable LM_LICENSE_FILE With this variable you specify the location of the license data file You only need to specify this variable if the license file is not on its default location c lex1m for Windows usr local flexlm licenses for UNIX TASKING_LIC_WAIT If you set this variable the tool will wait for a license to become available if all licenses are taken If you have not set this variable the tool aborts with an error message Only useful with floating licenses TMPDIR With this variable you specify the location where programs can create
210. ug The figure below shows how these main functionalities relate to each other toolchain selection editor project management tool options makefile make compiler assembler linker absolute file debugger Figure 2 1 EDE development flow 2 4 7 User s Manual In the Edit part you make all your changes create a project space create and maintain one or more projects in a project space add create and edit source files in a project set the options for each tool in the toolchain select another toolchain if you want to create an application for another target than the M16C In the Build part you build your files a makefile created by the Edit part is used to invoke the needed toolchain components resulting in an absolute object file In the Debug part you can debug your project call the TASKING debugger CrossView Pro with the generated absolute object file This Getting Started Chapter guides you step by step through the most important features of EDE The TASKING EDE is an embedded environment and differs from a native program development A native program development environment is often used to develop applications for systems where the host system and the target are the same Therefore it is possible to run a compiled application directly from the development environment In an embedded environment however a simulator or target hardware is required to run an ap
211. ule as in which you call the function because the compiler only inlines a function in the module that contains the function definition When you need to call the inline function from several source modules you must e include the definition of the inline function in each module for example using an include file containing the definition e enable MIL linking on the Optimizations page of the C compiler options and compile the involved files in the same run The compiler inserts the function body at the place the function is called If the function is not called at all the compiler does not generate code for it Example inline int w x y Z inline int add int a int b return a b void main void add 1 2 z add x y The function add is defined before it is called The compiler inserts optimized code for both calls to the add function The generated assembly is C Language 3 35 _main mov w 3 _W mov w _y AO add w _x AO MOV W A0 zZ Example pragma inline pragma noinline Instead of the inline qualifier you can also use pragma inline and pragma noinline to inline a function body int w x y Z pragma inline int add int a int b return a b pragma noinline void main void w add 1 2 z add x y If a function has an inline __noinline function qualifier then this qualifier will overrule the current pragma setting p
212. urce in assembly but may differ from the structure in the initial C source USING THE ASSEMBLER ail TASKING M diLdVHO Using the Assembler 7 3 7 1 INTRODUCTION The assembler converts hand written or compiler generated assembly language programs into machine language resulting in object files in the Executable and Linking Format ELF The assembler takes the following files for input and output assembly file compiler generated assembly file asm _ BES hand coded assembler L listfile lst asm16c gt error messages ers relocatable object file obj Figure 7 1 Assembler This chapter first describes the assembly process The various assembler optimizations are described in the second section Third it is described how to call the assembler and how to use its options An extensive list of all options and their descriptions is included in the Reference Manudl Finally a few important basic tasks are described 7 2 ASSEMBLY PROCESS The assembler generates relocatable output files with the extension obj These files serve as input for the linker Phases of the assembly process 1 Parsing of the source file preprocessing of assembler directives and checking of the syntax of instructions 2 Optimization instruction alignment size and generic instructions 3 Generation of the relocatable object file and optionally a list file The assembler integ
213. urn information about macros e Address calculation functions return the high or low part of an address e Assembler mode functions relating assembler operation 4 12 User s Manual The following tables provide an overview of all built in assembler functions For a detailed description of these functions see section 2 2 Built in Assembly Function Reference Manual in Chapter Assembly Language of the Overview of mathematical functions Function Description ABS expr OMAX expr exprN OMIN expr exprN SGN expr Absolute value Maximum value Minimum value Returns the sign of an expression as 1 0 or 1 Overview of string functions POS sir1 str2 start SCP sir1 str2 SUB string expr expr Function Description CAT sir1 str2 Concatenate strings OLEN string Length of string Position of substring in string Returns 1 if two strings are egual Returns substring in string Overview of macro functions Function Description OARG symbol expr Test if macro argument is present CNT Return number of macro arguments MAC symbol Test if symbol is defined as a macro MXP Test if macro expansion is active Overview of address calculation functions Function Description LSW expr MSW expr Returns lower 16 bits of expression value Returns bits 16 31 of expression value Assembly Language 4 13
214. us in M16C core internal memory processor procl processor name is arbitrary derivative X You can omit this part except if you use a multi core system 8 24 User s Manual memory ext name external memory definition section layout procl Ml6C near section layout section placement statements sections are located in address space near of core M16C of processor procl 8 6 4 THE ARCHITECTURE DEFINITION Although you will probably not need to program the architecture definition unless you are building your own processor core it helps to understand the Linker Script Language and how the definitions are interrelated Within an architecture definition the characteristics of a target processor core that are important for the linking process are defined These include e space definitions the logical address spaces and their properties e bus definitions the I O buses of the core architecture e mappings the address translations between logical address spaces the connections between logical address spaces and buses and the address translations between buses Address spaces A logical address space is a memory range for which the core has a separate way to encode an address into instructions Most microcontrollers and DSPs support multiple address spaces For example the M16C has separate spaces for byte addressable data and bit addressable data Normally th
215. use with UNIX cml6c bin Structure The toolchain documentation consists of a User s Manual this manual which includes a Getting Started section and a separate Reference Manual First you need to install the software This is described in Chapter 1 Software Installation and Configuration After installation you are ready to follow the Getting Started in Chapter 2 Next move on with the other chapters which explain how to use the compiler assembler linker and the various utilities Once you are familiar with these tools you can use the Reference Manual to lookup specific options and details to make full use of the M16C toolchain XII User s Manual SHORT TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 Software Installation and Configuration Guides you through the installation of the software Describes the most important settings paths and filenames that you must specify to get the package up and running Chapter 2 Getting Started Overview of the toolchain and its individual elements Describes the relation between the toolchain and specific features of the M16C Explains step by step how to write compile assemble and debug your application Teaches how you can use projects to organize your files Chapter 3 C Language The TASKING M16C C compiler is fully compatible with ISO C This chapter describes the specific M16C features of the C language including language extensions that are not standard in ISO C For example pragma
216. ve in section 3 3 2 Detailed Description of Assembler Directives in chapter Assembly Language of the Reference Manual for a complete description of all possible attributes Section activation Sections are defined once and are activated with the SECT directive SECT name The linker will check between different modules and emits an error message if the section attributes do not match The linker will also concatenate all matching section definitions into one section So all code sections generated by the compiler will be linked into one big code chunk which will be located in one piece By using this naming scheme it is possible to collect all pieces of code or data belonging together into one bigger section during the linking phase A SECT directive referring to an earlier defined section is called a continuation Only the name can be specified Example 1 DEFSECT test CO CODE SECT test CO Defines and activates a relocatable section in CODE memory Other parts of this section with the same name may be defined in the same module or any other module Other modules should use the same DEFSECT statement When necessary it is possible to give the section an absolute starting address with the locator description file Example 2 DEFSECT test ABS CO CODE AT 0x1000 SECT test ABS CO Defines and activates an absolute section named test_ABS_CO starting on address 0x1000 Assembly Language 4 19 E
217. xample 3 DEFSECT test CLR DA DATA CLEAR SECT test CLR DA Defines a relocatable named section in DATA memory The CLEAR attribute instructs the linker to clear the memory located to this section When this section is used in another module it must be defined identically Continuations of this section in the same module are as follows SECT test CLR DA 4 10 MACRO OPERATIONS Macros provide a shorthand method for inserting a repeated pattern of code or group of instructions Yuo can define the pattern as a macro and then call the macro at the points in the program where the pattern would repeat Some patterns contain variable entries which change for each repetition of the pattern Others are subject to conditional assembly When a macro is called the assembler executes the macro and replaces the call by the resulting in line source statements In line means that all replacements act as if they are one the same line as the macro call The generated statements may contain substitutable arguments The statements produced by a macro can be any processor instruction almost any assembler directive or any previously defined macro Source statements resulting from a macro call are subject to the same conditions and restrictions as any other statements Macros can be nested The assembler processes nested macros when the outer macro is expanded 4 10 1 DEFINING A MACRO The first step in using a macro is to define it in
218. y define how input sections are placed in address spaces relative to each other and what their absolute run time and load time addresses will be To illustrate section placement the following example of a C program is used Example section propagation through the toolchain To illustrate section placement the following example of a C program bat c is used The program saves the number of times it has been executed in battery back upped memory and prints the number define BATTERY BACKUP TAG Oxa5f0 include lt stdio h gt int uninitialized data int initialized data 1 pragma renamesect DA non volatile noclear int battery backup tag int battery backup invok pragma endrenamesect DA Using the Linker 8 31 void main void if battery_backup_tag BATTERY BACKUP TAG battery back upped memory area contains invalid data initialize the memory battery _backup_tag BATTERY_BACKUP_TAG battery _backup_invok 0 printf This application has been invoked d times n battery _backup_invok The compiler assigns names and attributes to sections With the pragma renamesect DA name the compiler s default section naming convention is overruled and a section with the name non_volatile CLR DA is defined In this section the battery back upped data is stored By default the compiler creates the section bat_CLR_DA data clear a section with the name bat_CLR_DA carrying section att
219. ymbol definition for example a function Using the Linker Term Definition Logical address LSL file MAU Object code Physical address Processor Relocatable object file Relocation Relocation information Section Section attributes Target Unresolved reference An address as encoded in an instruction word an address generated by a core CPU The set of linker script files that are passed to the linker Minimum Addressable Unit For a given processor the number of bits loaded between an address and the next address This is not necessarily a byte or a word The binary machine language representation of the C source An address generated by the memory system An instance of a derivative Usually implemented as a custom chip but can also be implemented in an FPGA in which case the derivative can be designed by the developer Object code in which addresses are represented by symbols and thus relocatable The process of assigning absolute addresses Information about how the linker must modify the machine code instructions when it relocates addresses A group of instructions and or data objects that occupy a contiguous range of addresses Attributes that define how the section should be linked or located The hardware board on which an application is executing A board contains at least one processor However a complex target may contain multiple processors and ext
220. zed with the ROM monitor 4 Click OK to close the message box 5 Click Close to close the dialog Getting Started 2 7 BUILD YOUR APPLICATION If you have set all options you can actually compile the file s This results in an absolute ELF DWARF object file which is ready to be debugged Build your Application To build the currently active project e_ Click on the Execute Make command button Tbe file is compiled assembled linked and located Tbe resulting file is getstart elf amp The build process only builds files that are out of date So if you click Make again in this example nothing is done because all files are up to date Viewing tbe Results of a Build Once the files have been processed you can see which commands have been executed and inspect generated messages by the build process in the Build tab of the Output window This window is normally open but if it is closed you can open it by selecting the Output menu item in the Window menu Compiling a Single File 1 Select the window document containing the file you want to compile or assemble 2 Click on the Execute Compile command button The following button is the execute Compile button which is located in the toolbar If you selected the file hello c this results in the compiled and assembled file hello obj 2 18 User s Manual Rebuild your Entire Application If you want to compile assemble and link locate all fil

User Manual - v3.1 M16 C Compiler

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